<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" ?>



<rss version="2.0" xmlns:rdf="http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#">

<channel>
<title><![CDATA[创意－－结构－－设计博客]]> </title>
<description>
<![CDATA[   为所有致力于结构设计的工程师们开放一个交流平台，共同发展，共同为祖国的美好为来而奋斗]]>
</description>
<link>http://wenyangang.blog.bokee.net/</link>
<language>zh-cn</language>
<creator>wenyangang</creator>
<pubDate>Sun, 29 Jun 2008 08:57:24 CST </pubDate>
<generatorAgent rdf:resource="http://www.bokee.net"/>
<ttl>5</ttl>

<item>
<title>第四十七篇大奇论——《黄帝内经·素问》 </title>
<link>http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/10018938.html</link>
<description>
<![CDATA[<p>肝满、肾满、肺满皆实，即为肿。</p>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">肺之雍，喘而两胠满；肝雍，两胠满，卧则惊，不得小便；肾雍，脚下至少腹满，胫有大小，髀(骨行)大跛，易偏枯。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">心脉满大，癎瘈筋挛；肝脉小急，癎瘈筋挛；肝脉惊暴，有所惊骇，脉不至若瘖，不治自己。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">肾脉小急，肝脉小急，心脉小急，不鼓皆为瘕。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">肝肾并沉为石水，并浮为风水，并虚为死，并小弦欲惊。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">肾脉大急沉，肝脉大急沉，皆为疝。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">心脉搏滑急为心疝。肺脉沉搏为肺疝。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">三阳急为瘕，三阴急为疝。二阴急为癎厥，二阳急为惊。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脾脉外鼓沉为肠澼，久自已。肝脉小缓为肠澼，易治。肾脉小搏沉，为肠澼下血，血温身热者死。心肝澼亦下血，二脏同病者可治。其脉小沉涩为肠澼，其身热者死，热见七日死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">胃脉沉鼓涩，胃外鼓大；心脉小坚急，皆膈偏枯。男子发左、女子发右，不暗舌转可治，三十日起。其从者暗三岁起，年不满二十者三岁死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至而搏，血衄身热者死。脉来悬钩浮为常脉。脉至如喘，名曰暴厥，暴厥者不知与人言。脉至如数，使人暴惊，三四日自已。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至浮合，浮合如数，一息十至以上，是经气予不足也，微见九十日死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如火薪然，是心精之予夺也，草干而死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如散叶，是肝气予虚也，木叶落而死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如省客，省客者，脉寒而鼓，是肾气予不足也，悬去枣华而死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如丸泥，是胃精予不足也，榆荚落而死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如横格，是胆气予不足也，禾熟而死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如弦缕，是胞精予不足也，病善言，下霜而死，不言可治。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如交漆，交漆者，左右傍至也，微见三十日死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如涌泉，浮鼓肌中，太阳气予不足也。少气味，韭英而死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如颓土之状，按之不得，是肌气予不足也。五色先见黑，白垒发死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如悬雍，悬雍者，浮揣切之益大，是十二俞之予不足也。水凝而死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如偃刀，偃刀者，浮之小急，按之坚大急，五脏菀热，寒热独并于肾也，如此其人不得坐，立春而死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如丸滑，不直手，不直手者，按之不可得也。是大肠气予不足也。枣叶生而死。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">脉至如华者令人善恐，不欲坐卧，行立常听，是小肠气予不足也。季秋而死。</div>
<p>&nbsp;</p>]]>
</description>
<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/10018938.html</guid>
<subject>中医</subject>
<author>wenyangang</author>
<category>中医</category>
<pubDate>Sat, 21 Jan 2012 16:44:10 CST </pubDate>
</item>

<item>
<title>Iljuschin Il-2(http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iljuschin_Il-2)</title>
<link>http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/10018928.html</link>
<description>
<![CDATA[<p>Die <b><a title="Iljuschin" href="/wiki/Iljuschin">Iljuschin</a> Il-2 &bdquo;Schturmowik&ldquo;</b> (russ. f&uuml;r Schlachtflugzeug) war ein ein- oder zweisitziges, einmotoriges, stark gepanzertes <a title="Schlachtflugzeug" href="/wiki/Schlachtflugzeug">Schlachtflugzeug</a>, das im <a title="Zweiter Weltkrieg" href="/wiki/Zweiter_Weltkrieg">Zweiten Weltkrieg</a> von den <a title="Luftstreitkr&auml;fte der Sowjetunion" href="/wiki/Luftstreitkr%C3%A4fte_der_Sowjetunion">sowjetischen Luftstreitkr&auml;ften</a> eingesetzt wurde. Es ist eines der am meisten gebauten Flugzeuge der Welt. Die Hauptaufgabe dieses Flugzeugs war die Bek&auml;mpfung feindlicher gepanzerter Fahrzeuge, obwohl es auch gegen &bdquo;weiche Ziele&ldquo; eingesetzt wurde. Die Russen selber nannten es &bdquo;Fliegender Panzer&ldquo; oder liebevoll &bdquo;Iljuscha&ldquo;.</p>
<p>
<table id="toc" class="toc">
    <tbody>
        <tr>
            <td>
            <div id="toctitle">
            <h2>Inhaltsverzeichnis</h2>
            <span class="toctoggle">[<a id="togglelink" class="internal" href="#">Verbergen</a>] </span></div>
            <ul>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Geschichte"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Geschichte</span></a>
                <ul>
                    <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Entwicklung"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Entwicklung</span></a></li>
                    <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Konstruktion"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Konstruktion</span></a></li>
                    <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Einsatz"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Einsatz</span></a></li>
                </ul>
                </li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Varianten"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Varianten</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Bewaffnung"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Bewaffnung</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Panzerung"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Panzerung</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Trivia"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Trivia</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Technische_Daten"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Technische Daten</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Siehe_auch"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Siehe auch</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Literatur"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Literatur</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Weblinks"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Weblinks</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Einzelnachweise"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Einzelnachweise</span></a></li>
            </ul>
            </td>
        </tr>
    </tbody>
</table>
</p>
<h2><span id="Geschichte" class="mw-headline">Geschichte</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Geschichte" href="/w/index.php?title=Iljuschin_Il-2&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<h3><span id="Entwicklung" class="mw-headline">Entwicklung</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Entwicklung" href="/w/index.php?title=Iljuschin_Il-2&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px"><a class="image" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Il2_2_ns37_machine_cannon_moscow_march_1943.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20071121225248"><img class="thumbimage" alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Il2_2_ns37_machine_cannon_moscow_march_1943.jpg/220px-Il2_2_ns37_machine_cannon_moscow_march_1943.jpg" width="220" height="170" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a class="internal" title="vergr&ouml;&szlig;ern und Informationen zum Bild anzeigen" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Il2_2_ns37_machine_cannon_moscow_march_1943.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20071121225248"><img alt="" src="//bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
Il-2M3 mit 37-mm-Maschinenkanonen (Moskau, M&auml;rz 1943)</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px"><a class="image" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Bundesarchiv_Bild_169-0066,_Russisches_Flugzeug_Ilyushin_Il-2_%22Stormovik%22.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20091011135356"><img class="thumbimage" alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_169-0066%2C_Russisches_Flugzeug_Ilyushin_Il-2_%22Stormovik%22.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_169-0066%2C_Russisches_Flugzeug_Ilyushin_Il-2_%22Stormovik%22.jpg" width="220" height="145" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a class="internal" title="vergr&ouml;&szlig;ern und Informationen zum Bild anzeigen" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Bundesarchiv_Bild_169-0066,_Russisches_Flugzeug_Ilyushin_Il-2_%22Stormovik%22.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20091011135356"><img alt="" src="//bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
Notgelandete Il-2, Ukraine im September 1942</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Der Entwurf beruhte auf einem Aufruf <a title="Josef Stalin" href="/wiki/Josef_Stalin">Josef Stalins</a> aus dem Jahre 1936 zur Entwicklung eines Mehrzweckflugzeuges f&uuml;r die sowjetischen Luftstreitkr&auml;fte. Es sollte die Bezeichnung &bdquo;Iwanow&ldquo; erhalten. Obwohl sich <a class="mw-redirect" title="Sergej Iljuschin" href="/wiki/Sergej_Iljuschin">Sergej Iljuschin</a> an diesem Wettbewerb offiziell nicht beteiligte, begann er, Studien &uuml;ber ein solches Flugzeug durchzuf&uuml;hren. Kern dieser &Uuml;berlegungen war es, eine optimale Kombination aus Masse, Panzerung, Feuerkraft und Geschwindigkeit zu erzielen. 1938 waren seine &Uuml;berlegungen soweit gediehen, dass er in einem Brief an den Zentralrat der <a title="Kommunistische Partei der Sowjetunion" href="/wiki/Kommunistische_Partei_der_Sowjetunion">KPdSU</a> vom 27. Januar 1938 darum bat, ihn mit der Konstruktion zu beauftragen. Sein Vorschlag wurde angenommen und am 5. Mai offiziell bewilligt.</p>
<p>Im Januar 1939 wurden die technischen Anforderungen an das Modell herausgegeben und der Bau des ersten Versuchsmusters begann. Die Arbeiten konnten noch im selben Jahr abgeschlossen werden, so dass Testpilot <a title="Wladimir Konstantinowitsch Kokkinaki" href="/wiki/Wladimir_Konstantinowitsch_Kokkinaki">Wladimir Kokkinaki</a> am 2. Oktober 1939 mit der <i>ZKB-55</i> zum Erstflug startete (ZKB = <a title="Zentrales Konstruktionsb&uuml;ro" href="/wiki/Zentrales_Konstruktionsb%C3%BCro">Zentrales Konstruktionsb&uuml;ro</a>). Eine zweite ZKB-55 flog am 30. Dezember 1939. Als Antrieb der zweisitzigen Maschine diente ein <a title="V-Motor" href="/wiki/V-Motor">V12-Motor</a> Mikulin AM-35. Die Werkserprobung war am 26. M&auml;rz 1940 abgeschlossen und die ZKB-55 begann im <a title="Wissenschaftliches Forschungsinstitut" href="/wiki/Wissenschaftliches_Forschungsinstitut">NII</a> (Forschungsinstitut der <a title="Russische Luftstreitkr&auml;fte" href="/wiki/Russische_Luftstreitkr%C3%A4fte">WWS</a>) die staatliche Erprobung. Sie dauerte vom 1. bis zum 20. April und bescheinigte dem Typ die Eignung als Schlachtflugzeug. Allein 15% des Gesamtgewichts entfielen auf die starke Panzerung, die Motor, Tank, Besatzung und K&uuml;hlsystem sch&uuml;tzen sollte;<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-0"><font size="2">[1]</font></a></sup> als milit&auml;rische Bezeichnung wurde das K&uuml;rzel <i>BSch-2</i> vergeben (russisch f&uuml;r gepanzertes Schlachtflugzeug).</p>
<p>Allerdings wurde von der Milit&auml;rkomission die geringe Geschwindigkeit von 362 km/h aufgrund der geringen Leistungsf&auml;higkeit des AM-35 in niedrigen H&ouml;hen bem&auml;ngelt. Auf Bitte Iljuschins begann der Triebwerkskonstrukteur <a title="Alexander Alexandrowitsch Mikulin" href="/wiki/Alexander_Alexandrowitsch_Mikulin">Mikulin</a> deshalb in Eigeninitiative die Entwicklung des leistungsst&auml;rkeren AM-38, die noch im selben Jahr abgeschlossen wurde.</p>
<p>Als die Vorbereitungen zum Bau einer kleinen Vorserie fast abgeschlossen waren, erging pl&ouml;tzlich die Forderung, die BSch-2 zum Einsitzer umzur&uuml;sten, da ein nach hinten feuernder Bordsch&uuml;tze als &uuml;berfl&uuml;ssig angesehen wurde. Iljuschin baute deshalb die erste ZKB-55 dementsprechend um und ersetzte gleichzeitig den AM-35 durch den AM-38. Die Erprobung erfolgte als <i>ZKB-57</i> vom 12. bis zum 22. Oktober 1940. Das Flugzeug erreichte dabei dank des st&auml;rkeren Motors in Bodenn&auml;he 423 km/h. Die Milit&auml;rs erkannten jedoch die Notwendigkeit eines solchen Flugzeuges nicht und so erfolgte kein Auftrag zur Serienproduktion. Erst nach einem Treffen von Iljuschin und Mikulin mit Stalin im Dezember 1940 wurde von diesem pers&ouml;nlich der Bau angeordnet.</p>
<p>Die Vorbereitungen zur Serienfertigung begannen nach einigen &Auml;nderungen im Januar 1941 im Flugzeugwerk 18 in <a title="Woronesch" href="/wiki/Woronesch">Woronesch</a> unter der Bezeichnung <i>ZKB-55P</i>. Noch im selben Monat erhielt das Flugzeug die offizielle Bezeichnung <i>Il-2</i>. Die staatliche Erprobung der ZKB-55P/Il-2 dauerte vom 28. Februar bis zum 20. M&auml;rz 1941 und wurde durch A. Dolgow durchgef&uuml;hrt. Parallel dazu begann im Februar die Serienfertigung. Der Erstflug der ersten Serien-Il-2 erfolgte am 10. M&auml;rz 1941. Bis zum <a class="mw-redirect" title="Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941&ndash;1945" href="/wiki/Krieg_gegen_die_Sowjetunion_1941%E2%80%931945">Kriegsbeginn</a> am 22. Juni 1941 wurden 249 Il-2 an die WWS geliefert (zwei im M&auml;rz, 14 im April, 74 im Mai, 159 im Juni). Kurz darauf erfolgte die Verlegung der Produktion nach <a title="Samara" href="/wiki/Samara">Kuibyschew</a>. Noch im Herbst desselben Jahres war die Evakuierung abgeschlossen und die Il-2 wurde von da an in stetig steigenden Zahlen den ganzen Krieg hindurch hergestellt und an die Fronteinheiten geliefert, bis die Produktion im Jahr 1945 auf das Nachfolgemodell <a title="Iljuschin Il-10" href="/wiki/Iljuschin_Il-10">Il-10</a> umgestellt wurde.</p>
<h3><span id="Konstruktion" class="mw-headline">Konstruktion</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Konstruktion" href="/w/index.php?title=Iljuschin_Il-2&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h3>
<p>Die Il-2 war ein Metallflugzeug mit einem Hinterrumpf aus geklebten Holzschalen und stoffbespannten Rudern am Leitwerk in Gemischtbauweise. Der Motor und die wichtigsten Teile des Flugzeuges (Pilot, K&uuml;hlung, Sch&uuml;tze, Treibstofftanks, etc.) waren bei den fr&uuml;hen Versionen mit bis zu 7 mm, sp&auml;ter mit bis zu 12 mm starkem Panzerstahl gesch&uuml;tzt. Die sch&uuml;tzende Panzerwanne der wichtigsten Komponenten war integraler Bestandteil der Flugzeugkonstruktion und im Gegensatz zu vielen anderen zeitgleichen Entwicklungen nicht demontierbar oder nur ein Zusatz zur eigentlichen Konstruktion. Diese Panzerung des Flugzeugs und seiner Besatzung war derart gelungen, dass das Flugzeug mit MG-Beschuss kaum zu bek&auml;mpfen war. Selbst der Beschuss mit Maschinenkanonen gr&ouml;&szlig;eren Kalibers f&uuml;hrte nicht unbedingt zum Erfolg, da die Geschosse h&auml;ufig einfach abprallten.</p>
<h3><span id="Einsatz" class="mw-headline">Einsatz</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Einsatz" href="/w/index.php?title=Iljuschin_Il-2&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 172px"><a class="image" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R85077,_Sowjetisches_Schlachtflugzeug_%C3%BCber_Berlin.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20090927200102"><img class="thumbimage" alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R85077%2C_Sowjetisches_Schlachtflugzeug_%C3%BCber_Berlin.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R85077%2C_Sowjetisches_Schlachtflugzeug_%C3%BCber_Berlin.jpg" width="170" height="268" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a class="internal" title="vergr&ouml;&szlig;ern und Informationen zum Bild anzeigen" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R85077,_Sowjetisches_Schlachtflugzeug_%C3%BCber_Berlin.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20090927200102"><img alt="" src="//bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
Drei Il-2 &uuml;ber Berlin im April 1945</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px"><a class="image" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-D0331-0042-012,_Russische_Flugzeuge_%C3%BCber_Berlin-Lankwitz.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20091123011040"><img class="thumbimage" alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-D0331-0042-012%2C_Russische_Flugzeuge_%C3%BCber_Berlin-Lankwitz.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-D0331-0042-012%2C_Russische_Flugzeuge_%C3%BCber_Berlin-Lankwitz.jpg" width="220" height="144" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a class="internal" title="vergr&ouml;&szlig;ern und Informationen zum Bild anzeigen" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-D0331-0042-012,_Russische_Flugzeuge_%C3%BCber_Berlin-Lankwitz.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20091123011040"><img alt="" src="//bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
Il-2 &uuml;ber Berlin-Lankwitz 1945</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Bereits bei den ersten K&auml;mpfen erlitt die Il-2 gr&ouml;&szlig;ere Verluste. Dies war einerseits auf den zu dieser Zeit fehlenden Jagdschutz zur&uuml;ckzuf&uuml;hren, andererseits auf die mangelnde Verteidigungsf&auml;higkeit des Musters im r&uuml;ckw&auml;rtigen Bereich. Im Februar 1942 wurde darum beschlossen, die Il-2 entsprechend Iljuschins fr&uuml;heren Entw&uuml;rfen wieder zum Zweisitzer umzubauen. Die Erprobung dieses als <i>Il-2M</i> bezeichneten Modells erfolgte im M&auml;rz desselben Jahres, gleichzeitig wurde ein st&auml;rkerer AM-38F-Motor eingebaut. Die WWS erhielten diese Il-2 ab September/Oktober 1942. Als Waffe f&uuml;r den Bordsch&uuml;tzen diente ein <a title="Beresin UB" href="/wiki/Beresin_UB">Beresin-UBT</a>-Maschinengewehr im Kaliber 12,7 mm.</p>
<p>Ab Fr&uuml;hjahr 1943 erschien mit der <i>Il-2M-3</i> die leistungsf&auml;higste Version. Sie besa&szlig; verbesserte Flugeigenschaften und war an den gepfeilten Au&szlig;enfl&uuml;geln erkennbar. Sie war die am meisten produzierte Il-2. Eine kleine Anzahl dieser Maschinen erhielt je zwei Unterfl&uuml;gelstationen mit 37-mm-Kanonen NS-37.</p>
<p>Erfolgreiche Il-2-Piloten des Zweiten Weltkrieges waren unter anderem die zweifachen <a title="Held der Sowjetunion" href="/wiki/Held_der_Sowjetunion">Helden der Sowjetunion</a> Talgat Begeldinow (&uuml;ber 300 Eins&auml;tze), Iwan Pawlow (250), Grigori Siwkow (243), Michail Bondarenko (230), Anatoli Brandis (228), Nikolai Semjeiko (227), Alexander Jefimow (222) und Leonid Beda (213).</p>
<p>Die Il-2 war sehr effektiv in der Bek&auml;mpfung von Panzern und anderen Bodenzielen, z. B. w&auml;hrend der <a title="Unternehmen Zitadelle" href="/wiki/Unternehmen_Zitadelle">Schlacht um Kursk</a>.</p>
<p>Die Produktionsangaben aller gebauten Il-2 schwanken stark, sie reichen von etwa 31.000 bis zu 36.163<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><font size="2">[2]</font></a></sup> Exemplaren.</p>
<h2><span id="Varianten" class="mw-headline">Varianten</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Varianten" href="/w/index.php?title=Iljuschin_Il-2&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<ul>
    <li><b>Il-2U</b></li>
</ul>
<p>Aus der einsitzigen Version entwickelte zweisitzige <a title="Schulflugzeug" href="/wiki/Schulflugzeug">Schulausf&uuml;hrung</a> (Utschebny samoljot) von 1942, auch als UIl-2 bezeichnet. Bewaffnet war sie mit zwei 23-mm-Kanonen WJa in den Tragfl&auml;chen, zwei RS-82-Raketen oder 600 kg Bomben.</p>
<ul>
    <li><b>Il-2T</b></li>
</ul>
<p>1943 entwickelter <a title="Torpedobomber" href="/wiki/Torpedobomber">Torpedobomber</a> (Torpedonosjez), ausger&uuml;stet mit einem 533-mm-Torpedo unter dem Rumpf statt der &uuml;blichen Bewaffnung. Zum Einsatz kam er gegen Schiffe im <a title="Schwarzes Meer" href="/wiki/Schwarzes_Meer">Schwarzen Meer</a>.</p>
<ul>
    <li><b>Il-2ASch-82 (M-82)</b></li>
</ul>
<p>Eine testweise mit einem <a title="Sternmotor" href="/wiki/Sternmotor">Doppelsternmotor</a> <a class="new" title="Schwezow ASch-82 (Seite nicht vorhanden)" href="/w/index.php?title=Schwezow_ASch-82&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1"><font color="#ba0000">ASch-82FN</font></a> ausger&uuml;stete Il-2M-3. Sie wurde im Winter 1943 getestet, erbrachte aber keine wesentlich besseren Leistungen. Eine Serienfertigung unterblieb deshalb.</p>
<ul>
    <li><b>Il-2I</b></li>
</ul>
<p>Eine Ausf&uuml;hrung als schwerer Jagdbomber/J&auml;ger (Istrebitel) von 1942. Sie bildete das Basismodell f&uuml;r die Weiterentwicklung der Il-2, die einsitzige <i>Il-1</i>, aus der die ebenfalls in gro&szlig;en St&uuml;ckzahlen gebaute <a title="Iljuschin Il-10" href="/wiki/Iljuschin_Il-10">Il-10</a> entstand.</p>
<ul>
    <li><b><a title="Iljuschin Il-8" href="/wiki/Iljuschin_Il-8">Il-8</a></b></li>
</ul>
<p>Eine Weiterentwicklung der Il-2M-3 mit Mikulin-AM-42-Triebwerk mit 2000 PS und Vierblatt-Propeller. Das Hauptfahrwerk fuhr um 90&deg; geschwenkt in die Tragfl&auml;chen ein. Bewaffnet war sie mit zwei 23-mm-Kanonen WJa, zwei 20-mm-Kanonen SchWAK sowie einem 12,7-mm-MG UBK f&uuml;r den Bordsch&uuml;tzen. Zus&auml;tzlich konnten 1000 kg Bomben oder wahlweise acht RS-82-/RS-32-Raketen mitgef&uuml;hrt werden. Die Erprobung fand im Fr&uuml;hjahr 1944 statt. Zugunsten der parallel entwickelten Il-10 wurde auf eine Serienproduktion verzichtet.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><font size="2">[3]</font></a></sup></p>
<h2><span id="Bewaffnung" class="mw-headline">Bewaffnung</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Bewaffnung" href="/w/index.php?title=Iljuschin_Il-2&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<p>Die Bewaffnung bestand aus Maschinengewehren, Bordkanonen des Kalibers 20 mm, 23 mm oder 37 mm sowie Bomben oder ungelenkten Luft-Boden-Raketen RS-82 und RS-132 (Kaliber 82 mm oder 132 mm). Ab 1943 kam die sehr wirksame Hohlladungsbombe <a title="PTAB" href="/wiki/PTAB">PTAB</a> zur Panzerbek&auml;mpfung hinzu.</p>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px"><a class="image" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%98%D0%BB-2.JPG&amp;filetimestamp=20101208210307"><img class="thumbimage" alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%98%D0%BB-2.JPG/220px-%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%98%D0%BB-2.JPG" width="220" height="165" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a class="internal" title="vergr&ouml;&szlig;ern und Informationen zum Bild anzeigen" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%98%D0%BB-2.JPG&amp;filetimestamp=20101208210307"><img alt="" src="//bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
Vier ungelenkte Raketen unter den Fl&uuml;geln einer Il-2</div>
</div>
</div>
<h2><span id="Panzerung" class="mw-headline">Panzerung</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Panzerung" href="/w/index.php?title=Iljuschin_Il-2&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<p>Die Panzerung der Il-2 umfasste das gesamte Rumpfvorderteil und sch&uuml;tzte Motor, Piloten, Treibstofftank und in den zweisitzigen Versionen auch den Bordsch&uuml;tzen. Von deutschen Jagdpiloten wurde die Il-2 auch &bdquo;Betonflugzeug&ldquo; genannt, da sie sogar direkte Treffer einer 20-mm-Kanone &uuml;berstehen konnte.</p>
<h2><span id="Trivia" class="mw-headline">Trivia</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Trivia" href="/w/index.php?title=Iljuschin_Il-2&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<ul>
    <li>Die Il-2 hatte die niedrigste Verlustrate aller sowjetischen Flugzeugtypen im Zweiten Weltkrieg.</li>
    <li>Die Il-2 war wegen ihrer Feuerkraft bei den deutschen Truppen ber&uuml;chtigt, die ihr die Namen &bdquo;Eiserner Gustav&ldquo;, &bdquo;Schl&auml;chter&ldquo; oder &bdquo;Schwarzer Tod&ldquo; gaben. Deutsche Jagdpiloten bezeichneten die Maschine wegen ihrer schweren Panzerung, gegen die viele Bordwaffen ineffektiv waren, als &bdquo;Betonflugzeug&ldquo;. Bei den russischen Truppen wurde sie auch als &bdquo;Fliegender Panzer&ldquo; (Летающий танк) oder &bdquo;Bucklige&ldquo; (Горбатый) bezeichnet.</li>
    <li>Von deutschen Truppen wurden &uuml;ber 100 Il-2 erbeutet. Sie wurden jedoch nur getestet und nicht eingesetzt, da das Flugzeug von der Luftwaffe als f&uuml;r den Piloten gef&auml;hrlich eingestuft wurde, weil es keinen technischen Normen entsprach. <a title="Finnland" href="/wiki/Finnland">Finnland</a> erhielt bis 1944 bevorzugt sowjetische Beuteflugzeuge, verwendete die Il-2 aber auch nicht.</li>
</ul>
<h2><span id="Technische_Daten" class="mw-headline">Technische Daten</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Technische Daten" href="/w/index.php?title=Iljuschin_Il-2&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px"><a class="image" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Ilyushin_Il-2_Warsaw_1.JPG&amp;filetimestamp=20060801095252"><img class="thumbimage" alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Ilyushin_Il-2_Warsaw_1.JPG/220px-Ilyushin_Il-2_Warsaw_1.JPG" width="220" height="165" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a class="internal" title="vergr&ouml;&szlig;ern und Informationen zum Bild anzeigen" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Ilyushin_Il-2_Warsaw_1.JPG&amp;filetimestamp=20060801095252"><img alt="" src="//bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
Bugansicht</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>
<table class="wikitable">
    <caption>Iljuschin Il-2/3m (Ильюшин Ил-2/3м)</caption>
    <tbody>
        <tr>
            <th>Kenngr&ouml;&szlig;e</th>
            <th>Daten</th>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Spannweite</td>
            <td>14,60 m</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>L&auml;nge</td>
            <td>11,65 m</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>H&ouml;he</td>
            <td>4,17 m</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Fl&uuml;gelfl&auml;che</td>
            <td>38,50 m&sup2;</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Leermasse</td>
            <td>4525 kg</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>maximale Startmasse</td>
            <td>6360 kg</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Triebwerk</td>
            <td>ein <i><a class="new" title="Mikulin AM-38 (Seite nicht vorhanden)" href="/w/index.php?title=Mikulin_AM-38&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1"><font color="#ba0000">Mikulin AM-38</font></a>F</i> (1282 kW/1720 PS)</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>H&ouml;chstgeschwindigkeit</td>
            <td>410 km/h in 1500 m H&ouml;he</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Reichweite</td>
            <td>765 km</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Dienstgipfelh&ouml;he</td>
            <td>4525 m</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Bewaffnung</td>
            <td>zwei 23-mm-MK <i><a title="Wolkow-Jarzew WJa-23" href="/wiki/Wolkow-Jarzew_WJa-23">WJa</a></i><br />
            zwei 7,62-mm-MG <i><a title="SchKAS" href="/wiki/SchKAS">SchKAS</a></i><br />
            ein Bordsch&uuml;tzen-MG <i><a title="Beresin UB" href="/wiki/Beresin_UB">UBT</a></i> Kaliber 12,7 x 108 mm</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Waffenlast</td>
            <td>bis zu 600 kg Bomben (6 &times; 50 kg, 6 &times; 100 kg oder 2 &times; 250 kg)<br />
            acht <i>RS-82</i>-Raketen oder vier <i>RS-132</i>-Raketen; 4 Bombenkassetten zu je 48 <a title="PTAB" href="/wiki/PTAB">PTABs</a>.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Besatzung</td>
            <td>1&ndash;2</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody>
</table>
</p>
<h2><span id="Siehe_auch" class="mw-headline">Siehe auch</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Siehe auch" href="/w/index.php?title=Iljuschin_Il-2&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<ul>
    <li><a title="Suchoi Su-6" href="/wiki/Suchoi_Su-6">Suchoi Su-6</a> &ndash; Konkurrenzmodell zur Il-2</li>
    <li><a title="Sowjetische Flugzeuge im Zweiten Weltkrieg" href="/wiki/Sowjetische_Flugzeuge_im_Zweiten_Weltkrieg">Sowjetische Flugzeuge im Zweiten Weltkrieg</a></li>
    <li><a title="IL-2 Sturmovik (Computerspiel)" href="/wiki/IL-2_Sturmovik_(Computerspiel)">IL-2 Sturmovik (Computerspiel)</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span id="Literatur" class="mw-headline">Literatur</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Literatur" href="/w/index.php?title=Iljuschin_Il-2&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<ul>
    <li>Olaf Groehler: <i>Geschichte des Luftkriegs 1910 bis 1980</i>, Milit&auml;rverlag der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Berlin 1981, S. 330f</li>
    <li>Ulrich Unger: <i>&Uuml;ber die Entstehung der Iljuschin IL-2.</i> in: Horst Sch&auml;del (Hrsg.): <i>Fliegerkalender der DDR 1990.</i> Milit&auml;rverlag der DDR, Berlin 1989, S. 47&ndash;57.</li>
    <li>Fliegerrevue 12/76 S. 502&ndash;507</li>
</ul>
<h2><span id="Weblinks" class="mw-headline">Weblinks</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Weblinks" href="/w/index.php?title=Iljuschin_Il-2&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<div class="sisterproject" style="margin: 0.1em 0px 0px"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="12" height="16" /> <b><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ilyushin_Il-2?uselang=de">Commons: Iljuschin Il-2</a></span></b> &ndash; Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien</div>
<ul>
    <li><a class="external text" href="http://www.plastikowe.pl/galerie/lotnictwo/iliuszyn-il-2m3" rel="nofollow"><i>Fotogalerie Iljuschin Il-2M3</i></a></li>
</ul>
<p>&nbsp;</p>]]>
</description>
<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/10018928.html</guid>
<subject>拆飞机</subject>
<author>wenyangang</author>
<category>拆飞机</category>
<pubDate>Sat, 21 Jan 2012 16:38:29 CST </pubDate>
</item>

<item>
<title>轴机构运动集合器</title>
<link>http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9973691.html</link>
<description>
<![CDATA[<p class="yiv858690730MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 21pt"><span style="font-size: small"><font face="宋体"><span style="font-family: 宋体">这里所讨论的轴，重点指的是用来传动的一种结构，这是人类社会活动的智慧结晶。</span></font></span><span style="font-size: small"><font face="宋体"><span style="font-family: 宋体">它能把几种运动方式联系起来，</span></font></span><span style="font-size: small"><font face="宋体"><span style="font-family: 宋体">把零散的各种运动联系成有机整体，如同一个人身上的筋络一样。</span></font></span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: small"><font face="宋体"><span style="font-family: 宋体">
<p class="yiv858690730MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 21pt"><span style="font-size: small"><font face="宋体"><span style="font-family: 宋体">轴的应用十分之广泛，尤其在运动的物品上。日常很多用品也可能抽象成轴，如用来写字的笔，吃饭用的筷子等。</span></font></span></p>
</span></font></span></p>
<p class="yiv858690730MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: small"><font face="宋体"><span style="font-family: 宋体">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;各个散乱的运动一如直线运动、曲线</span></font><font face="宋体"><span style="font-family: 宋体">运动、往复运动等大多只是单一的一种运动只能完成些简单的工作，如汽车向前运动，减速运动，转弯运动这些都是一些单一的运动，如果汽车只具备其中单一的一种运动的话，则根本无法完成行驶。而正是因为汽车合理的应用了轴，把各种单一的运动联系起来进而合成了复杂的运动，而完成从一目的点行驶到另一目的点任务。</span></font></span></p>
<p class="yiv858690730MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: small"><font face="宋体"><span style="font-family: 宋体">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;再举个例子来说明一下，如同拿筷子吃饭其中好几元素&mdash;饭碗、筷子、嘴吧、人手。完成这一过程的动作则是首先用手拿起筷子（手如同一个轴承）这只轴；而手指与手臂则又是另外的轴，手指灵活运动使筷子运动起来而产生了筷子开合运动，把碗里的食物夹起来；再接</span></font><font face="宋体"><span style="font-family: 宋体">手臂轴的运动加上手掌这个轴承把筷子这个轴另一端的食品送到嘴中；而后手指运动开合筷子食物从筷子上逃离，进入嘴中完成送饭的运动。</span></font></span></p>
<p dir="rtl" class="yiv858690730MsoNormal" align="right" style="text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed; direction: rtl"><span style="font-size: small"><font face="宋体"><span dir="ltr" style="font-family: 宋体">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 上例子如若筷子不存在，手臂不动作，各各运动都在单独的无序的进行着的话则你可能看不到美味入口的场景，而映入眼脸的则是美食无法入口，空开口空闭口，手指在空中乱舞的景象。而因为筷子轴与手臂轴的存在，把手指的运动与嘴吧的开合接合到一起，轴完成了集合运动的任务才有了美食入口，人吃饱肚子的结果。</span></font></span></p>
<p dir="rtl" class="yiv858690730MsoNormal" align="right" style="text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed; direction: rtl"><span style="font-size: small"><font face="宋体"><span dir="ltr" style="font-family: 宋体">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 因为有了轴这个运动集合器的存在，把杂乱的各自运动集合成了有序的运动才有了机械行业日新月异的发展变化。进而出现如汽车、轮船等可做复杂运动的交通工具。</span></font></span></p>
<p dir="rtl" class="yiv858690730MsoNormal" align="right" style="text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed; direction: rtl"><span style="font-size: small"><font face="宋体"><span dir="ltr" style="font-family: 宋体">　　轴做为机械行业的筋络功不可没，要了解此行业则定要对轴做更进一步的了解，以做到识其形，知其源，明其功，用其优。</span></font></span></p>
<p class="yiv858690730MsoNormal"><font size="1" face="Arial"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 9pt">　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　终南山：文彦刚</span></font></p>]]>
</description>
<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9973691.html</guid>
<subject>结构</subject>
<author>wenyangang</author>
<category>结构</category>
<pubDate>Sat, 14 Jan 2012 23:17:47 CST </pubDate>
</item>

<item>
<title>文心雕龙-38</title>
<link>http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9816633.html</link>
<description>
<![CDATA[<p><span style="font-size: 22pt"><strong><font color="#f08442">事类第三十八</font></strong></span></p>
<p>事类者，盖文章之外，据事以类义，援古以证今者也。昔文王繇《易》，剖判爻位。《既济》九三，远引高宗之伐，《明夷》六五，近书箕子之贞：斯略举人事，以征义者也。至若胤征羲和，陈《政典》之训；盘庚诰民，叙迟任之言：此全引成辞以明理者也。然则明理引乎成辞，征义举乎人事，乃圣贤之鸿谟，经籍之通矩也。《大畜》之象，&ldquo;君子以多识前言往行&rdquo;，亦有包于文矣。</p>
<p>观夫屈宋属篇，号依诗人，虽引古事，而莫取旧辞。唯贾谊《鵩赋》，始用鹖冠之说；相如《上林》，撮引李斯之书，此万分之一会也。及扬雄《百官箴》，颇酌于《诗》、《书》；刘歆《遂初赋》，历叙于纪传；渐渐综采矣。至于崔班张蔡，遂捃摭经史，华实布濩，因书立功，皆后人之范式也。</p>
<p>夫姜桂因地，辛在本性；文章由学，能在天资。才自内发，学以外成，有学饱而才馁，有才富而学贫。学贫者迍邅于事义，才馁者劬劳于辞情，此内外之殊分也。是以属意立文，心与笔谋，才为盟主，学为辅佐；主佐合德，文采必霸，才学褊狭，虽美少功。夫以子云之才，而自奏不学，及观书石室，乃成鸿采。表里相资，古今一也。故魏武称张子之文为拙，以学问肤浅，所见不博，专拾掇崔杜小文，所作不可悉难，难便不知所出。斯则寡闻之病也。</p>
<p>夫经典沉深，载籍浩瀚，实群言之奥区，而才思之神皋也。扬班以下，莫不取资，任力耕耨，纵意渔猎，操刀能割，必裂膏腴。是以将赡才力，务在博见，狐腋非一皮能温，鸡庶必数千而饱矣。是以综学在博，取事贵约，校练务精，捃理须核，众美辐辏，表里发挥。刘劭《赵都赋》云∶&ldquo;公子之客，叱劲楚令歃盟；管库隶臣，呵强秦使鼓缶。&rdquo;用事如斯，可称理得而义要矣。故事得其要，虽小成绩，譬寸辖制轮，尺枢运关也。或微言美事，置于闲散，是缀金翠于足胫，靓粉黛于胸臆也。</p>
<p>凡用旧合机，不啻自其口出，引事乖谬，虽千载而为瑕。陈思，群才之英也，《报孔璋书》云∶&ldquo;葛天氏之乐，千人唱，万人和，听者因以蔑《韶》、《夏》矣。&rdquo;此引事之实谬也。按葛天之歌，唱和三人而已。相如《上林》云∶&ldquo;奏陶唐之舞，听葛天之歌，千人唱，万人和。&rdquo;唱和千万人，乃相如推之。然而滥侈葛天，推三成万者，信赋妄书，致斯谬也。陆机《园葵》诗云∶&ldquo;庇足同一智，生理合异端。&rdquo;夫葵能卫足，事讥鲍庄；葛藟庇根，辞自乐豫。若譬葛为葵，则引事为谬；若谓庇胜卫，则改事失真：斯又不精之患。夫以子建明练，士衡沉密，而不免于谬。曹洪之谬高唐，又曷足以嘲哉！夫山木为良匠所度，经书为文士所择，木美而定于斧斤，事美而制于刀笔，研思之士，无惭匠石矣。</p>
<p>赞曰∶经籍深富，辞理遐亘。皓如江海，郁若昆邓。<br />
文梓共采，琼珠交赠。用人若己，古来无懵。</p>]]>
</description>
<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9816633.html</guid>
<subject>乱谈</subject>
<author>wenyangang</author>
<category>乱谈</category>
<pubDate>Mon, 02 Jan 2012 21:34:30 CST </pubDate>
</item>

<item>
<title>第四十六篇病能论——《黄帝内经·素问》 </title>
<link>http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9816516.html</link>
<description>
<![CDATA[<p>黄帝问曰：人病胃脘痈者，诊当何如？岐伯对曰：诊此者，当候胃脉，其脉当沉细，沉细者气逆，逆者，人迎甚盛，甚盛则热；人迎者，胃脉也，逆而盛，则热聚于胃口而不行，故胃胱为痈也。</p>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">帝曰：善。人有卧而有所不安者，何也？岐伯曰：脏有所伤，及精有所之寄则安，故人不能悬其病也。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">帝曰：人之不得偃卧者，何也？岐伯曰：肺者脏之盖也，肺气盛则脉大，脉大则不得偃卧，论在奇恒阴阳中。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">帝曰：有病厥者，诊右脉沉而紧，左脉浮而迟，不然病主安在？岐伯曰：冬诊之，右脉固为沉紧，此应四时，左脉浮而迟，此逆四时，在左当主病在肾，颇关在肺，当腰痛也。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">帝曰：何以言之？岐伯曰：少阴脉贯肾络肺，今得肺脉，肾为之病，故肾为腰痛之病也。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">帝曰：善。有病颈痈者，或石治之，或针灸治之，而皆已。其真安在？岐伯曰：此同名异等者也。夫痈气之息者，宜以针开除去之。夫气盛血聚者，宜石而泻之，此所谓同病异治也。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">帝曰：有病怒狂者，此病安生？岐伯曰：生于阳也。帝曰：阳何以使人狂？岐伯曰：阳气者，因暴折而难决，故善怒也，病名曰阳厥。帝曰：何以知之？岐伯曰：阳明者常动，巨阳少阳不动，不动而动，大疾，此其候也。帝曰：治之奈何？岐伯曰：夺其食即已。夫食入于阴，长气于阳，故夺其食即已。使之服以生铁络为饮，夫生铁络者，下气疾也。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">帝曰：善。有病身热解堕，汗出如浴。恶风少气，此为何病？岐伯曰：病名曰酒风。帝曰：治之奈何？岐伯曰：以泽泻，朮各十分，麋衔五分，合以三指撮为后饭。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">所谓深之细者，其中手如针也。摩之切之，聚者，坚也，博者，大也。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">上经者，言气之通天也。下经者，言病之变化也。金匮者，决死生也。拨度者，切度之也。奇恒者，言奇病也。所谓奇者，使奇病不得以四时死也。恒者，得以四时死也。</div>
<div align="left">&nbsp;</div>
<div align="left">所谓揆者，方切求之也，言切求其脉理也。度者，得其病处，以四时度之也。</div>]]>
</description>
<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9816516.html</guid>
<subject>中医</subject>
<author>wenyangang</author>
<category>中医</category>
<pubDate>Mon, 02 Jan 2012 21:05:17 CST </pubDate>
</item>

<item>
<title>轴(百度百科）</title>
<link>http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9816441.html</link>
<description>
<![CDATA[<h1 class="title">
<h1 class="title sub-title">轴</h1>
<div class="mod-top">
<h4 class="card-title"><span class="throwbtl-link-span" data-edit-id="5229838$$机械部件$$111087"><a class="throwbtl-link-view" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#" sublemmaid="5229838" orilemmaid="111087" sublemmatitle="机械部件" isviewcard="1">求助编辑</a></span>百科名片</h4>
<div class="card-summary nslog-area" data-nslog-type="72">
<div id="cardpic0" class="pic" style="width: 199px"><a hidefocus="hidefocus" href="/albums/111087/5229838.html#0$f677b1c3673acc6ab319a8e8" target="_blank"><img class="card-image editorImg" title="轴锻件" alt="轴锻件" src="http://imgsrc.baidu.com/baike/abpic/item/f677b1c3673acc6ab319a8e8.jpg" /> </a>
<div>轴锻件</div>
</div>
<div class="card-summary-content">
<p>轴(shaft)是穿在<a href="/view/5545.htm" target="_blank">轴承</a>中间或车轮中间或齿轮中间的圆柱形物件，但也有少<a href="/view/697045.htm" target="_blank">部分</a>是方型的。轴是支承转动<a href="/view/158782.htm" target="_blank">零件</a>并与之一起回转以传递运动、<a href="/view/22440.htm" target="_blank">扭矩</a>或弯矩的<a href="/view/126125.htm" target="_blank">机械零件</a>。一般为金属圆杆状，各段可以有不同的直径。<a href="/view/126147.htm" target="_blank">机器</a>中作回转运动的零件就装在轴上。</p>
</div>
<div class="clear">&nbsp;</div>
</div>
</div>
<fieldset id="catalog-0" class="text_dir nslog-area" data-nslog-type="1016" data-subindex="0">
<p>目录</p>
<dl id="catalog-holder-0" class="holder1" style="padding-bottom: 20px; width: 172px; visibility: hidden">
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="#1" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">汉字解释</a> </dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="#2" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">轴的分类</a> </dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="#3" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">结构设计</a> </dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="#4" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">扭转刚度</a> </dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="#5" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">磨损分析</a>
    <ol style="display: none">
        <li><a href="#5_1">磨损原因</a></li>
        <li><a href="#5_2">针对技术</a></li>
        <li><a href="#5_3">修复技术</a></li>
    </ol>
    </dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="#6" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">联轴器</a>
    <ol style="display: none">
        <li><a href="#6_1">基本概念</a></li>
        <li><a href="#6_2">主要用途</a></li>
    </ol>
    </dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="#7" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">技术要求</a> </dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="#8" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">加工工艺</a> </dd>
    <dd style="display: none"><a class="nslog:1274" href="#9" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">加工方法</a> </dd>
    <dd style="display: none"><a class="nslog:1274" href="#10" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">工艺分析</a> </dd>
    <dd style="display: none"><a class="nslog:1274" href="#11" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">材料使用</a></dd>
</dl>
<dl id="catalog-holder-2-0" class="holder2 arr" style="width: 172px; display: block">
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#1" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">汉字解释</a></dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#2" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">轴的分类</a></dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#3" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">结构设计</a></dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#4" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">扭转刚度</a></dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#5" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">磨损分析</a>
    <ol style="display: none">
        <li><a href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#5_1">磨损原因</a></li>
        <li><a href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#5_2">针对技术</a></li>
        <li><a href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#5_3">修复技术</a></li>
    </ol>
    </dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#6" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">联轴器</a>
    <ol style="display: none">
        <li><a href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#6_1">基本概念</a></li>
        <li><a href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#6_2">主要用途</a></li>
    </ol>
    </dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#7" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">技术要求</a></dd>
    <dd><a class="nslog:1274" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#8" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">加工工艺</a></dd>
    <dd id="cata-temp0" class="temp" style="height: 0px">
    <ul id="cata-data0" class="data">
        <li><a class="nslog:1274" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#9" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">加工方法</a></li>
        <li><a class="nslog:1274" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#10" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">工艺分析</a></li>
        <li><a class="nslog:1274" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#11" name="STAT_ONCLICK_UNSUBMIT_CATALOG">材料使用</a></li>
    </ul>
    </dd>
    <div id="catalog-holder0" class="nslog:1017 catalog-holder">展开</div>
</dl>
</fieldset>
<div class="clear">&nbsp;</div>
<div id="lemmaContent-0" class="lemma-main-content">
<h2 class="headline-1 first bk-sidecatalog-title"><span class="text_edit editable-title" data-edit-id="111087:5229838:1"><a class="nslog:1019" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#">编辑本段</a></span><a name="1"></a><span class="headline-content">汉字解释</span></h2>
　　轴 zhou 形声。字从车，从由，由亦声。&ldquo;由&rdquo;意为&ldquo;滑动&rdquo;。&ldquo;车&rdquo;与&ldquo;由&rdquo;联合起来表示&ldquo;车轮上的滑动部件&rdquo;。<b>本义</b>：车轮上的旋转部件。<b>说明</b>：《说文》：&ldquo;轴，持轮也。从车，由声&rdquo;。
<div class="bpctrl">&nbsp;</div>
<h2 class="headline-1 bk-sidecatalog-title"><span class="text_edit editable-title" data-edit-id="111087:5229838:2"><a class="nslog:1019" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#">编辑本段</a></span><a name="2"></a><span class="headline-content">轴的分类</span></h2>
　　
<div class="text_pic" style="position: relative; padding-bottom: 3px; width: 100px; float: right; visibility: visible"><a href="/albums/111087/5229838.html#0$b3f6cea23aaa17becbefd0d6" target="_blank"><img class="editorImg log-set-param" title="" src="http://imgsrc.baidu.com/baike/abpic/item/b3f6cea23aaa17becbefd0d6.jpg" log-set-param="img_view" alt="" /></a>
<p class="pic-info">&nbsp;</p>
</div>
根据轴线形状的不同，轴可以分为曲轴和直轴两类。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　根据轴的承载情况，又可分为：①转轴，工作时既承受弯矩又承受<a href="/view/22440.htm" target="_blank">扭矩</a>，是机械中最常见的轴，如各种<a href="/view/284970.htm" target="_blank">减速器</a>中的轴等。②<a href="/view/515877.htm" target="_blank">心轴</a>，用来支承转动<a href="/view/158782.htm" target="_blank">零件</a>只承受弯矩而不传递扭矩，有些心轴转动，如<a href="/view/328244.htm" target="_blank">铁路车辆</a>的轴等，有些心轴则不转动，如支承<a href="/view/34695.htm" target="_blank">滑轮</a>的轴等。③<a href="/view/237581.htm" target="_blank">传动轴</a>，主要用来传递扭矩而不承受弯矩，如<a href="/view/22514.htm" target="_blank">起重机</a>移动机构中的长光轴、<a href="/view/4033.htm" target="_blank">汽车</a>的驱动轴等。轴的材料主要采用碳素钢或<a href="/view/136287.htm" target="_blank">合金钢</a>，也可采用<a href="/view/347481.htm" target="_blank">球墨铸铁</a>或<a href="/view/561368.htm" target="_blank">合金铸铁</a>等。轴的工作能力一般取决于强度和刚度，转速高时还取决于振动稳定性。
<div class="bpctrl">&nbsp;</div>
<h2 class="headline-1 bk-sidecatalog-title"><span class="text_edit editable-title" data-edit-id="111087:5229838:3"><a class="nslog:1019" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#">编辑本段</a></span><a name="3"></a><span class="headline-content">结构设计</span></h2>
　　
<div class="text_pic" style="position: relative; padding-bottom: 3px; width: 200px; float: right; visibility: visible"><a href="/albums/111087/5229838.html#0$91138622ad7647bcd6cae26d" target="_blank"><img class="editorImg log-set-param" title="轴的结构" src="http://imgsrc.baidu.com/baike/abpic/item/91138622ad7647bcd6cae26d.jpg" log-set-param="img_view" alt="" /></a>
<p class="pic-info">轴的结构</p>
</div>
轴的结构设计是确定轴的合理外形和全部结构尺寸，为轴设计的重要步骤。它由轴上安装零件类型、尺寸及其位置、零件的固定方式，载荷的性质、方向、大小及分布情况，<a href="/view/5545.htm" target="_blank">轴承</a>的类型与尺寸，轴的毛坯、制造和装配工艺、安装及运输，对轴的变形等因素有关。设计者可根据轴的具体要求进行设计，必要时可做几个方案进行比较，以便选出最佳设计方案，以下是一般轴结构设计原则：
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　1、节约材料，减轻重量，尽量采用等强度外形尺寸或大的截面系数的截面形状；
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　2、易于轴上零件精确定位、稳固、装配、拆卸和调整；
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　3、采用各种减少<a href="/view/108269.htm" target="_blank">应力集中</a>和提高强度的结构措施；
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　4、便于加工制造和保证精度。
<div class="bpctrl">&nbsp;</div>
<h2 class="headline-1 bk-sidecatalog-title"><span class="text_edit editable-title" data-edit-id="111087:5229838:4"><a class="nslog:1019" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#">编辑本段</a></span><a name="4"></a><span class="headline-content">扭转刚度</span></h2>
　　轴的扭转刚度校核是计算的轴的工作时扭转变形量，是用每米轴长的扭角 度量的。轴的扭转变形要影响<a href="/view/126147.htm" target="_blank">机器</a>的性能和工作精度，如内燃机<a href="/view/84554.htm" target="_blank">凸轮</a>轴的扭转角过大，会影响气门的正确启闭时间；<a href="/view/3869435.htm" target="_blank">龙门式起重机</a>运动机构传动轴的扭转角会影响驱动轮的同步性；对有发生扭转振动危险的轴以及操纵系统中的轴，都需要有较大的扭转刚度。
<div class="bpctrl">&nbsp;</div>
<h2 class="headline-1 bk-sidecatalog-title"><span class="text_edit editable-title" data-edit-id="111087:5229838:5"><a class="nslog:1019" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#">编辑本段</a></span><a name="5"></a><span class="headline-content">磨损分析</span></h2>
<h3 class="headline-2 bk-sidecatalog-title"><a name="5_1"></a><span class="headline-content">磨损原因</span></h3>
　　轴类磨损是轴使用过程中最为常见的设备问题。轴类出现磨损的原因有很多，但是最主要的原因就是用来制造轴的金属特性决定的，金属虽然硬度高，但是退让性差（变形后无法复原
<div class="text_pic" style="position: relative; padding-bottom: 3px; width: 200px; float: right; visibility: visible"><a href="/albums/111087/5229838.html#0$fd428c4521cb165887947388" target="_blank"><img class="editorImg log-set-param" title="轴" src="http://imgsrc.baidu.com/baike/abpic/item/fd428c4521cb165887947388.jpg" log-set-param="img_view" alt="" /></a>
<p class="pic-info">轴</p>
</div>
），抗冲击性能较差，抗疲劳性能差，因此容易造成<a href="/view/542585.htm" target="_blank">粘着磨损</a>、磨料磨损、疲劳磨损、<a href="/view/812194.htm" target="_blank">微动磨损</a>等，大部分的轴类磨损不易察觉，只有出现机器高温、跳动幅度大、异响等情况时，才会引起人们的察觉，但是到人们发觉时，大部分轴都已磨损，从而造成机器停机。
<h3 class="headline-2 bk-sidecatalog-title"><a name="5_2"></a><span class="headline-content">针对技术</span></h3>
　　大型设备轴头磨损后的修复是一个值得关注的问题。当轴的材质为 <a href="/view/339929.htm" target="_blank">45号钢</a>（调质处理）时，如果仅采用堆焊处理，则会产生焊接内应力，在重载荷或高速运转的情况下，可能在轴肩处出现裂纹乃至断裂的现象。如果采用去应力退火，则难于操作，且加工周期长，检修费用高。当轴的材质为HT200时，采用铸铁焊也不理想。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　国内针对轴类磨损一般采用的是补焊、襄轴套、打麻点等，如果停机时间短又有备件，一般会采用更换新轴，一些维修技术较高的企业会采用电刷镀、激光焊、微弧焊甚至<a href="/view/1453942.htm" target="_blank">冷焊</a>等，这些维修技术需要采购高昂的设备和高薪聘请技术工人，国内一些中小企业一般通过技术较高外协来帮助修复高价值轴，只不过要支付高昂的维修费用和运输费用。
<h3 class="headline-2 bk-sidecatalog-title"><a name="5_3"></a><span class="headline-content">修复技术</span></h3>
　　对于以上修复技术，在欧美日韩企业已不太常见，因为传统技术效果差，而激光焊、微弧焊等高级修复技术对设备和人员要求高，费用支出大，现在欧美日韩一般采用的是<a href="/view/3153107.htm" target="_blank">福世蓝</a> <a href="/view/999665.htm" target="_blank">高分子复合材料</a>技术和纳米技术，现场操作，不仅有效提升了维修效率，更是大大降低了维修费用和维修强度。<sup>[1]</sup><a name="ref_[1]"></a>
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　因金属材质为&ldquo;常量关系&rdquo;，虽然强度较高，但抗冲击性以及退让性较差，所以长期的运行必造成配合间隙不断增大造成轴磨损，意识到这种关键原因后，欧美新技术研究机构研制的高分子复合材料即具有金属所要求的强度和硬度，又具有金属所不具备的退让性（变量关系），通过&ldquo;模具修复&rdquo;、&ldquo;部件对应关系&rdquo;、&ldquo;机械加工&rdquo;等工艺，可以最大限度确保修复部位和配合部件的尺寸配合；同时，利用复合材料本身所具有的抗压、抗弯曲、延展率等综合优势，可以有效地吸收外力的冲击，极大化解和抵消轴承对轴的径向冲击力，并避免了间隙出现的可能性，也就避免了设备因间隙增大而造成相对运动的磨损，所以针对轴与轴承的静配合，复合材料不是靠&ldquo;硬度&rdquo;来解决设备磨损的，而是靠改变力的关系来满足设备的运行要求。
<div class="bpctrl">&nbsp;</div>
<h2 class="headline-1 bk-sidecatalog-title"><span class="text_edit editable-title" data-edit-id="111087:5229838:6"><a class="nslog:1019" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#">编辑本段</a></span><a name="6"></a><span class="headline-content">联轴器</span></h2>
　　通常轴不能单独运转，要使轴能够正常运转就必须使用<a href="/view/150585.htm" target="_blank">联轴器</a>。
<h3 class="headline-2 bk-sidecatalog-title"><a name="6_1"></a><span class="headline-content">基本概念</span></h3>
　　联轴器属于机械通用零<a href="/view/210488.htm" target="_blank">部件</a>范畴，用来联接不同机构中的两根轴（主动轴和从动轴）使之共同旋转以传递扭矩的<a href="/view/126125.htm" target="_blank">机械零件</a>。在高速重载的动力传动中，有些联轴器还有缓冲、减振和提高轴系动态性能的作用。联轴器由两半<a href="/view/697045.htm" target="_blank">部分</a>组成，分别与主动轴和从动轴联接。一般动力机大
<div class="text_pic" style="position: relative; padding-bottom: 3px; width: 200px; float: right; visibility: visible"><a href="/albums/111087/5229838.html#0$9a1151c27a264752e5dd3b89" target="_blank"><img class="editorImg log-set-param" title="轴" src="http://imgsrc.baidu.com/baike/abpic/item/9a1151c27a264752e5dd3b89.jpg" log-set-param="img_view" alt="" /></a>
<p class="pic-info">轴</p>
</div>
都借助于联轴器与工作机相联接，是机械产品轴系传动最常用的联接部件。20世纪后期国内外联轴器产品发展很快，在产品设计时如何从品种甚多、性能各异的各种联轴器中选用能满足机器要求的联轴器，对多数设计人员来讲，始终是一个困扰的问题。常用联轴器有<a href="/view/1999036.htm" target="_blank">膜片联轴器</a> ，鼓形齿式联轴器，<a href="/view/2206800.htm" target="_blank">万向联轴器</a>，安全联轴器，<a href="/view/2688730.htm" target="_blank">弹性联轴器</a>及蛇形弹簧联轴器。
<h3 class="headline-2 bk-sidecatalog-title"><a name="6_2"></a><span class="headline-content">主要用途</span></h3>
　　联轴器的用途很广泛，一般情况下只要有<a href="/view/1930.htm" target="_blank">电机</a>或减速机就要用联轴器，大型联轴器在冶金机械上用的比较多。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　不同的联轴器有不同的作用，综合各种联轴器的作用如下:
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　一、是把原动机和工作机械的轴联接起来并传递扭矩。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　二、是可以适当补偿两根轴因制造、安装等因素造成的径向轴向和角向误差。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　三、安全联轴器当发生过载时，联轴器打滑或销子断开以保护工作机械。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　四、弹性联轴器还有缓冲、减振和提高轴系动态性能的作用
<div class="bpctrl">&nbsp;</div>
<h2 class="headline-1 bk-sidecatalog-title"><span class="text_edit editable-title" data-edit-id="111087:5229838:7"><a class="nslog:1019" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#">编辑本段</a></span><a name="7"></a><span class="headline-content">技术要求</span></h2>
　　1、加工精度
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　1)尺寸精度 轴类零件的尺寸精度主要指轴的直径尺寸精度和轴长尺寸<a href="/view/285142.htm" target="_blank">精度</a>。按使用要求，主要轴颈直径尺寸精度通常为IT6-IT9级，精密的轴颈也可达IT5级。轴长尺寸通常规定为公称尺寸，对于阶梯轴的各台阶长度按使用要求可相应给定公差。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　2)几何精度 轴类零件一般是用两个轴颈支撑在轴承上，这两个轴颈称为支撑轴颈，也是轴的装配基准。除了尺寸精度外，一般还对支撑轴颈的几何精度（圆度、圆柱度）提出要求。对于一般精度的轴颈，几何形状误差应限制在直径公差范围内，要求高时，应在零件图样上另行规定其
<div class="text_pic" style="position: relative; padding-bottom: 3px; width: 200px; float: right; visibility: visible"><a href="/albums/111087/5229838.html#0$e8112b2a4f1ad25f5343c18b" target="_blank"><img class="editorImg log-set-param" title="轴" src="http://imgsrc.baidu.com/baike/abpic/item/e8112b2a4f1ad25f5343c18b.jpg" log-set-param="img_view" alt="" /></a>
<p class="pic-info">轴</p>
</div>
允许的公差值。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　3)相互位置精度 轴类零件中的配合轴颈（装配传动件的轴颈）相对于支撑轴颈间的同轴度是其相互位置精度的普遍要求。通常普通精度的轴，配合精度对支撑轴颈的径向圆跳动一般为0.01-0.03mm，高精度轴为0.001-0.005mm。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　此外，相互位置精度还有内外圆柱面的同轴度，轴向定位端面与轴心线的垂直度要求等。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　2、<a href="/view/55599.htm" target="_blank">表面粗糙度</a>
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　根据机械的精密程度，运转速度的高低，轴类零件表面粗糙度要求也不相同。一般情况下，支撑轴颈的表面粗糙度 Ra值为0.63-0.16 &mu;m ；配合轴颈的表面粗糙度Ra值为2.5-0.63 &mu; m
<div class="bpctrl">&nbsp;</div>
<h2 class="headline-1 bk-sidecatalog-title"><span class="text_edit editable-title" data-edit-id="111087:5229838:8"><a class="nslog:1019" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#">编辑本段</a></span><a name="8"></a><span class="headline-content">加工工艺</span></h2>
　　1、轴类零件的材料
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　轴类零件材料的选取，主要根据轴的<a href="/view/91950.htm" target="_blank">强度</a>、<a href="/view/121447.htm" target="_blank">刚度</a>、<a href="/view/735585.htm" target="_blank">耐磨性</a>以及<a href="/view/1146582.htm" target="_blank">制造工艺</a>性而决定，力求经济合理。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　常用的轴类零件材料有 35、45、50优质碳素钢，以45钢应用最为广泛。对于受载荷较小或不太重要的轴也可用Q235、Q255等普通<a href="/view/121543.htm" target="_blank">碳素钢</a>。对于受力较大，轴向尺寸、重量受限制或者某些有特殊要求的可采用合金钢。如40Cr合金钢可用于中等精度，转速较高的工作场合，该材料经<a href="/view/891605.htm" target="_blank">调质</a>处理后具有较好的综合力学性能；选用Cr15、65Mn等合金钢可用于精度较高，工作条件较差的情况，这些材料经调质和表面淬火后其耐磨性、耐疲劳强度性能都较好；若是在高速、重载条件下工作的轴类零件，选用20Cr、20CrMnTi、20Mn2B等低碳钢或38CrMoA1A渗碳钢，这些港经渗碳淬火或渗氮处理后，不仅有很高的表面硬度，而且其心部强度也大大提高，因此具有良好的耐磨性、抗冲击韧性和耐疲劳强度的性能。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　球墨铸铁、高强度<a href="/view/110458.htm" target="_blank">铸铁</a>由于铸造性能好，且具有减振性能，常在制造外形结构复杂的轴中采用。特别是我国研制的稀土&mdash;&mdash;镁球墨铸铁，抗冲击韧性好，同时还具有减摩、吸振，对应力集中敏感性小等优点，已被应用于制造汽车、拖拉机、机床上的重要轴类零件。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　2、轴类零件的毛坯
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　轴类零件的毛坯常见的有型材（圆棒料）和锻件。大型的，外形结构复杂的轴也可采用铸件。内燃机中的曲轴一般均采用铸件毛坯。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　型材毛坯分热轧或冷拉棒料，均适合于光滑轴或直径相差不大的阶梯轴。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　锻件毛坯经加热锻打后，金属内部纤维组织沿表面分布，因而有较高的抗拉、抗弯及抗扭转强度，一般用于重要的轴。
<div class="bpctrl">&nbsp;</div>
<h2 class="headline-1 bk-sidecatalog-title"><span class="text_edit editable-title" data-edit-id="111087:5229838:9"><a class="nslog:1019" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#">编辑本段</a></span><a name="9"></a><span class="headline-content">加工方法</span></h2>
　　1、外圆表面的加工方法及加工精度
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　轴类、套类和盘类零件是具有外圆表面的典型零件。外圆表面常用的机械加工方法有<a href="/view/1256067.htm" target="_blank">车削</a>、<a href="/view/1464176.htm" target="_blank">磨削</a>和各种<a href="/view/3841400.htm" target="_blank">光整加工</a>方法。车削加工是外圆表面最经济有效的加工方法，但就其经济精度来说，一般适于作为外圆表面粗加工和半精加工方法；磨削加工是外圆表面主要精加工方法，特别适用于各种高硬度和淬火后的
<div class="text_pic" style="position: relative; padding-bottom: 3px; width: 200px; float: right; visibility: visible"><a href="/albums/111087/5229838.html#0$9f6e19086a06dd57e9248883" target="_blank"><img class="editorImg log-set-param" title="轴" src="http://imgsrc.baidu.com/baike/abpic/item/9f6e19086a06dd57e9248883.jpg" log-set-param="img_view" alt="" /></a>
<p class="pic-info">轴</p>
</div>
零件精加工；光整加工是精加工后进行的超精密加工方法（如滚压、抛光、<a href="/view/404271.htm" target="_blank">研磨</a>等），适用于某些精度和表面质量要求很高的零件。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　由于各种加工方法所能达到的经济加工精度、表面粗糙度、生产率和生产成本各不相同，因此必须根据具体情况，选用合理的加工方法，从而加工出满足零件图纸上要求的合格零件。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　序号 加工方法 经济精度 （公差等级） 经济粗糙度 Ra值/ &mu; m 适用范围
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　1 粗车 IT13-IT11 50-12.5 适用于淬火钢以外的各种金属
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　2 粗车 -半精车 IT10-IT8 6.3-3.2
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　3 粗车 -半精车-精车 IT8-IT7 1.6-0.8
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　4 粗车 -半精车-精车-滚压 IT8-IT7 0.2-0.025
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　5 粗车 -半精车-磨削 IT8-IT7 0.8-0.4 主要用于淬火钢，也可用于未淬火钢，但不适用于有色金属
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　6 粗车 -半精车-粗磨-精磨 IT7-IT6 0.4-0.1
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　7 粗车 -半精车-粗磨-精磨-超精加工（或轮式超精磨） IT5 0.1-0.012
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　（或 Rz 0.1）
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　8 粗车 -半精车-精车-精细车（金刚车） IT7-IT6 0.4-0.025 主要用于要求较高的有色金属
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　9 粗车 -半精车-粗磨-精磨-超精磨（或镜面磨） IT5以上 0.025-0.006
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　（或 Rz 0.1） 极高精度的外圆加工
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　10 粗车 -半精车-粗磨-精磨-研磨 IT5以上 &middot; 012 （或 Rz 0.1）
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　2、外圆表面的车削加工
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　(1)外圆车削的形式
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　轴类零件外圆表面的主要加工方法是<a href="/view/404281.htm" target="_blank">车削加工</a>。主要的加工形式有：
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　荒车 自由锻件和大型铸件的毛坯，加工余量很大，为了减少毛坯外圆形状误差和位置偏差，使后续工序加工余量均匀，以去除外表面的氧化皮为主的外圆加工，一般切除余量为单面1-3mm。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　粗车 中小型锻、铸件毛坯一般直接进行粗车。粗车主要切去毛坯大部分余量（一般车出阶梯轮廓），在工艺系统刚度容许的情况下，应选用较大的切削用量以提高生产效率。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　半精车 一般作为中等精度表面的最终加工工序，也可作为磨削和其它加工工序的预加工。对于精度较高的毛坯，可不经粗车，直接半精车。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　精车 外圆表面加工的最终加工工序和光整加工前的预加工。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　精细车 高精度、细粗糙度表面的最终加工工序。适用于有色金属零件的外圆表面加工，但由于有色金属不宜磨削，所以可采用精细车代替磨削加工。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　但是，精细车要求<a href="/view/9884.htm" target="_blank">机床</a>精度高，刚性好，传动平稳，能微量进给，无爬行现象。车削中采用金刚石或<a href="/view/22604.htm" target="_blank">硬质合金</a>刀具，刀具主偏角选大些（ 45 o -90 o ）,刀具的刀尖圆弧半径小于0.1-1.0mm，
<div class="text_pic" style="position: relative; padding-bottom: 3px; width: 200px; float: right; visibility: visible"><a href="/albums/111087/5229838.html#0$0db52fad57dcb46e4b36d6b8" target="_blank"><img class="editorImg log-set-param" title="轴" src="http://imgsrc.baidu.com/baike/abpic/item/0db52fad57dcb46e4b36d6b8.jpg" log-set-param="img_view" alt="" /></a>
<p class="pic-info">轴</p>
</div>
以减少工艺系统中弹性变形及振动。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　(2)车削方法的应用
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　1）普通车削 适用于各种批量的轴类零件外圆加工，应用十分广泛。单件小批量常采用卧室车床完成车削加工；中批、大批生产则采用自动、半自动车床和专用<a href="/view/16588.htm" target="_blank">车床</a>完成车削加工。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　2)数控车削 适用于单件小批和中批生产。近年来应用愈来愈普遍，其主要优点为柔性好，更换加工零件时设备调整和准备时间短；加工时辅助时间少，可通过优化切削参数和适应控制等提高效率；加工质量好，专用工夹具少，相应生产准备成本低；机床操作技术要求低，不受操作工人的技能、视觉、精神、体力等因素的影响。对于轴类零件，具有以下特征适宜选用数控车削。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　结构或形状复杂，普通加工操作难度大，工时长，加工效率低的零件。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　加工精度一致性要求较高的零件。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　切削条件多变的零件，如零件由于形状特点需要切槽，车孔，车<a href="/view/163235.htm" target="_blank">螺纹</a>等，加工中要多次改变<a href="/view/1495070.htm" target="_blank">切削用量</a>。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　批量不大，但每批品种多变并有一定复杂程度的零件。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　对带有键槽，径向孔（含螺钉孔）、端面有分布的孔（含螺钉孔）系的轴类零件，如带法兰的轴，带键槽或方头的轴，还可以在车削加工中心上加工，除了能进行普通数控车削外，零件上的各种槽、孔（含螺钉孔）、面等加工表面也可一并能加工完毕。工序高度集中，其加工效率较普通<a href="/view/7645.htm" target="_blank">数控</a>车削更高，加工精度也更为稳定可靠。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　（3）外圆表面的磨削加工
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　用磨具以较高的线速度对工件表面进行加工的方法称为磨削。磨削加工是一种多刀多刃的高速切削方法，它使用于零件精加工和硬表面的加工。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　磨削的工艺范围很广，可以划分为粗磨、精磨、细磨及镜面磨。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　磨削加工采用的磨具（或磨料）具有颗粒小，硬度高，耐热性好等特点，因此可以加工较硬的<a href="/view/403617.htm" target="_blank">金属材料</a>和非金属材料，如淬硬钢、硬质合金刀具、<a href="/view/4082.htm" target="_blank">陶瓷</a>等；加工过程中同时参与切削运动的颗粒多，能切除极薄极细的切屑，因而加工精度高，表面粗糙度值小。磨削加工作为一种精加工方法，在生产中得到广泛的应用。目前，由于强力磨削的发展，也可直接将毛坯磨削到所需要的尺寸和精度，从而获得了较高的生产率。
<div class="bpctrl">&nbsp;</div>
<h2 class="headline-1 bk-sidecatalog-title"><span class="text_edit editable-title" data-edit-id="111087:5229838:10"><a class="nslog:1019" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#">编辑本段</a></span><a name="10"></a><span class="headline-content">工艺分析</span></h2>
　　1、轴类零件加工的<a href="/view/77063.htm" target="_blank">工艺</a>路线
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　1)基本加工路线
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　外圆加工的方法很多，基本加工路线可归纳为四条。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　① 粗车&mdash;半精车&mdash;精车
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　对于一般常用材料，这是外圆表面加工采用的最主要的工艺路线。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　② 粗车&mdash;半精车&mdash;粗磨&mdash;精磨
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　对于黑色金属材料，精度要求高和表面粗糙度值要求较小、零件需要淬硬时，其后续工序只能用磨削而采用的加工路线。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　③ 粗车&mdash;半精车&mdash;精车&mdash;<a href="/view/14770.htm" target="_blank">金刚石</a>车
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　对于有色金属，用磨削加工通常不易得到所要求的表面粗糙度，因为有色金属一般比较软，容易堵塞沙粒间的空隙，因此其最终工序多用精车和金刚石车。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　④ 粗车&mdash;半精&mdash;粗磨&mdash;精磨&mdash;光整加工
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　对于黑色金属材料的淬硬零件，精度要求高和表面粗糙度值要求很小，常用此加工路线。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　2)典型加工工艺路线
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　轴类零件的主要加工表面是外圆表面，也还有常见的特特形表面，因此针对各种精度等级和表面粗糙度要求，按经济精度选择加工方法。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　对普通精度的轴类零件加工，其典型的工艺路线如下：
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　毛坯及其热处理&mdash;预加工&mdash;车削外圆&mdash;铣键槽&mdash;（花键槽、沟槽）&mdash;<a href="/view/32682.htm" target="_blank">热处理</a>&mdash;磨削&mdash;终检。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　(1)轴类零件的预加工
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　轴类零件的预加工是指加工的准备工序，即车削外圆之前的工艺。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　校直 毛坯在制造、运输和保管过程中，常会发生弯曲变形，为保证加工余量的均匀及装夹可靠，一般冷态下在各种压力机或校值机上进行校值，
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　(2) 轴类零件加工的定位基准和装夹
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　1）以工件的<a href="/view/3841390.htm" target="_blank">中心孔</a>定位 在轴的加工中，零件各外圆表面，锥孔、螺纹表面的同轴度，端面对旋转轴线的垂直度是其相互位置精度的主要项目，这些表面的设计基准一般都是轴的中心线，若用两中心孔定位，符合基准重合的原则。中心孔不仅是车削时的定为基准，也是其它加工工序的定位基准和检验基准，又符合基准统一原则。当采用两中心孔定位时，还能够最大限度地在一次装夹中加工出多个外圆和端面。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　2）以外圆和中心孔作为定位基准（一夹一顶） 用两中心孔定位虽然定心精度高，但刚性差，尤其是加工较重的工件时不够稳固，切削用量也不能太大。粗加工时，为了提高零件的刚度，可采用轴的外圆表面和一中心孔作为定位基准来加工。这种定位方法能承受较大的切削力矩，是轴类零件最常见的一种定位方法。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　3）以两外圆表面作为定位基准 在加工空心轴的内孔时，（例如：机床上莫氏锥度的内孔加工），不能采用中心孔作为定位基准，可用轴的两外圆表面作为定位基准。当工件是机床主轴时，常以两支撑轴颈（装配基准）为定位基准，可保证锥孔相对支撑轴颈的同轴度要求，消除基准不重合而引起的误差。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　4）以带有中心孔的锥堵作为定位基准 在加工空心轴的外圆表面时，往往还采用代中心孔的锥堵或锥套心轴作为定位基准，见图9所示。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　锥堵或锥套心轴应具有较高的精度，锥堵和锥套心轴上的中心孔即是其本身制造的定位基准，又是空心轴外圆精加工的基准。因此必须保证锥堵或锥套心轴上锥面与中心孔有较高的同轴度。在装夹中应尽量减少锥堵的安装此书，减少重复安装误差。实际生产中，锥堵安装后，中途加工一般不得拆下和更换，直至加工完毕。
<div class="bpctrl">&nbsp;</div>
<h2 class="headline-1 bk-sidecatalog-title"><span class="text_edit editable-title" data-edit-id="111087:5229838:11"><a class="nslog:1019" href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/111087.htm#">编辑本段</a></span><a name="11"></a><span class="headline-content">材料使用</span></h2>
　　1、碳素钢
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　35、45、50等优质碳素结构钢因具有较高的综合力学性能，应用较多，其中以45钢用得最为广泛。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　为了改善其力学性能，应进行正火或调质处理。不重要或受力较小的轴，则可采用<a href="/view/1122711.htm" target="_blank">Q235</a>、Q275等碳素结构钢。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　2、合金钢
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　合金钢具有较高的力学性能，但价格较贵，多用于有特殊要求的轴。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　例如采用<a href="/view/144410.htm" target="_blank">滑动轴承</a>的高速轴，常用20Cr、20CrMnTi等低碳合金结构钢，经渗碳淬火后可提高轴颈耐磨性；
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　汽轮发电机转子轴在高温、高速和重载条件下工作，必须具有良好的高温力学性能，常采用40CrNi、38CrMoAlA等合金结构钢。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　轴的毛坯以锻件优先、其次是圆钢；
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　尺寸较大或结构复杂者可考虑铸钢或球墨铸铁。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　例如，用球墨铸铁制造曲轴、凸轮轴，具有成本低廉、吸振性较好，对应力集中的敏感性较低、强度较好等优点。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　轴的力学模型是梁、多数要转动，因此其应力通常是对称循环。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　其可能的失效形式有：<a href="/view/545540.htm" target="_blank">疲劳断裂</a>、过载断裂、弹性变形过大等。
<div class="spctrl">&nbsp;</div>
　　轴上通常要安装一些带轮毂的零件，因此大多数轴应作成阶梯轴，<a href="/view/71522.htm" target="_blank">切削加工</a>量大。</div>
</h1>]]>
</description>
<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9816441.html</guid>
<subject>结构</subject>
<author>wenyangang</author>
<category>结构</category>
<pubDate>Mon, 02 Jan 2012 20:35:45 CST </pubDate>
</item>

<item>
<title>中国通史－－－－0121好书共分享 第四卷 秦汉时期</title>
<link>http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9816368.html</link>
<description>
<![CDATA[<p>
<table id="table1" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="740">
    <tbody>
        <tr>
            <td height="66" background="mb4a.jpg">
            <p align="center"><b><font color="#663300" size="4">第二十四章 郑吉 段会宗 傅介子 冯嫽</font></b></p>
            </td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td height="166" valign="top" background="mb4.jpg">
            <div align="center">
            <table id="table2" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="80%">
                <tbody>
                    <tr>
                        <td style="line-height: 150%"><!--HTMLBUILERPART0-->　　郑吉、段会宗、傅介子、冯嫽是西汉中后期经营西域的人物。 <!--/HTMLBUILERPART0--></td>
                    </tr>
                </tbody>
            </table>
            </div>
            </td>
        </tr>
    </tbody>
</table>
</p>
<table id="table1" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="740">
    <tbody>
        <tr>
            <td height="66" background="mb4a.jpg">
            <p align="center"><b><font color="#663300" size="4">第一节 郑吉</font></b></p>
            </td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td height="166" valign="top" background="mb4.jpg">
            <div align="center">
            <table id="table2" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="80%">
                <tbody>
                    <tr>
                        <td style="line-height: 150%"><!--HTMLBUILERPART0-->　　掌西域屯田<br />
                        <br />
                        　　郑吉（？&mdash;前49），西汉会稽（郡治吴县在今江苏苏州）人。起初在汉军中当士兵，多次前去西域，因而升为郎官。他为人&ldquo;强执，习外国事&rdquo;。自从张骞通西域、李广利征伐大宛之后，开始在西域设置校尉，屯田于渠犁。汉宣帝地节二年（公元前68年），郑吉以侍郎的身份被派遣到渠犁负责屯田，积蓄粮食，打算攻打车师。到秋收时，郑吉与校尉司马熹发动西域城郭诸国军队一万多人，自己带领的屯田士一千五百人共击车师，攻破交河城（今吐鲁番西）。车师王躲在北边石城中，未曾捉到，适值军粮已尽，郑吉决定罢兵，回到渠犁屯田。秋收完毕，又发兵攻车师王于石城。车师王听说汉军将到，往北逃走向匈奴求救，匈奴未为发兵。车师王与贵族苏犹商议，打算向汉军投降，又担心不见信任。苏犹教车师王攻取匈奴旁边的小蒲类国，劫掠其人民，然后投降于郑吉。匈奴听说车师王投降于汉朝，发兵攻打车师，郑吉带兵向北迎战，匈奴吓得不敢前来。郑吉就留下一个军侯及二十个士兵保卫车师王，自己领兵回到渠犁屯田。车师王害怕匈奴军队又去杀他，于是逃到乌孙，郑吉迎接车师王的妻子安排在渠犁。郑吉回朝报告，到了酒泉，有诏命他回到渠犁与车师屯田，增加积粮以安定西域，对付匈奴。郑吉回到西域，&ldquo;传送车师王妻子诣长安，赏赐甚厚，每朝会四夷，常尊显以示之&rdquo;。同时，开始调发三百士兵到车师屯田。据投降者报告，匈奴贵族都说&ldquo;车师地肥美，近匈奴，使汉得之，多田积谷，必害人国，不可不争也&rdquo;。果然匈奴派遣骑兵来击汉屯田者，郑吉就和校尉将渠犁的屯田士一千五百人全都调到车师屯田，匈奴又增调骑兵前来，汉屯田士少不能当，退守于车师城。匈奴贵族在城下对郑吉说：&ldquo;单于必争此地，不可田也。&rdquo;围城几天就解了。后来常有数千骑兵往来守车师。郑吉上书报告：&ldquo;车师去渠犁千余里，间以河山，北近匈奴，汉兵在渠犁者势不能相救，愿益田卒。&rdquo;公卿大臣议论，以为道远烦费，可以罢归车师屯田。诏命长罗侯常惠带领张掖、酒泉的骑兵开往车师北边千余里，显示汉军威武。匈奴骑兵退去，郑吉才从车师回到渠犁，共有三校尉屯田。汉朝立了故车师太子军宿为王，将车师国民迁到渠犁。车师王因得到汉军保护，不受匈奴欺压，&ldquo;亦安乐亲汉&rdquo;。后来汉朝置戊己校尉屯田，居于车师原来的地方①。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　始为西域都护郑吉因在渠犁与车师之功，升为卫司马，负责卫护鄯善西南方（塔里木①此篇材料主要依据于《汉书&middot;郑吉传》，凡引此传文字不另加注。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　①此段情节与引文，据《汉书&middot;西域传》。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　盆地以南、昆仑山以北，所谓&ldquo;南道&rdquo;）各国的安全。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　神爵（公元前61&mdash;前58年）年间，匈奴内部矛盾严重，日逐王先贤掸打算投降汉朝，派人来与郑吉联系。郑吉当即发动渠犁、龟兹各国五万人迎接日逐王，日逐王部下一万二千人、大小头目十二人随郑吉到了河曲地区，有一些人逃亡，郑吉追杀了他们，于是带着日逐王及其部下到了京师。朝廷封日逐王为归德侯。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　郑吉因打垮了车师，召降了日逐王，&ldquo;威震西域&rdquo;，于是兼护车师西北方（天山以北，所谓&ldquo;北道&rdquo;）各国的安全。所以号称&ldquo;都护&rdquo;。汉朝在西域设置都护，是从郑吉开始的。汉宣帝为了嘉奖郑吉的功劳，封他为安远侯，下诏书说：&ldquo;都护西域骑都尉郑吉，拊循外蛮，宣明威信，迎匈奴单于从兄日逐王众，击破车师兜訾城，功效茂著。其封吉为安远侯，食邑千户。&rdquo;这时是神爵三年（公元前59年）。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　郑吉选择西域中心、土地肥饶的地方设立都护的幕府，治乌垒城（在今新疆库尔勒与轮台之间），负责处理西域各国事务，&ldquo;督察乌孙、康居诸外国动静，有变以闻。可安辑，安辑之；可击，击之。&rdquo;同时发展屯田事业，&ldquo;田于北胥鞬，披莎车之地&rdquo;①。屯田校尉开始从属于都护。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　匈奴日逐王投降于汉朝，汉朝在西域设置都护，标志着汉朝与匈奴势力在西域的消长。以往匈奴的势力很大，&ldquo;匈奴西边日逐王置僮仆都尉，使领西域，常居焉耆、危须、慰黎间，赋税诸国，取富给焉&rdquo;①。自日逐王投降于汉朝，匈奴的僮仆都尉&ldquo;由此罢，匈奴益弱，不得近西域&rdquo;②。而汉朝自张骞始，至于郑吉，在西域发展壮大了势力，&ldquo;镇抚诸国，诛伐怀集之&rdquo;。所以史称：&ldquo;汉之号令班于西域矣，始自张骞而成于郑吉。&rdquo;<br />
                        <br />
                        　　①《汉书&middot;西域传》。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　①《汉书&middot;西域传》。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　②《汉书&middot;西域传》。 <!--/HTMLBUILERPART0--></td>
                    </tr>
                </tbody>
            </table>
            </div>
            </td>
        </tr>
    </tbody>
</table>
<p>
<table id="table1" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="740">
    <tbody>
        <tr>
            <td height="66" background="mb4a.jpg">
            <p align="center"><b><font color="#663300" size="4">第二节 段会宗</font></b></p>
            </td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td height="166" valign="top" background="mb4.jpg">
            <div align="center">
            <table id="table2" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="80%">
                <tbody>
                    <tr>
                        <td style="line-height: 150%"><!--HTMLBUILERPART0-->　　两任西域都护<br />
                        <br />
                        　　段会宗（前84&mdash;前10），字子松，西汉天水上邦（今甘肃天水）人。竟宁元年（公元前33年）任西域都护、骑都尉光禄大夫，西域各国敬重他的威信。任满三年，按例更换官吏而还朝，任为沛郡太守，继又徙为雁门太守。过了几年，坐法免官。因为西域各国上书要求他前去，所以阳朔（公元前24&mdash;前21年）年间又任西域都护。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　谷永与段会宗友好，知道段会宗又任西域都护，怜悯其年老又远出，写书告诫说：&ldquo;足下以柔远之令德，复典都护之重职，甚休甚休！若子之材，可优游都城而取卿相，何必勒功昆山之仄，总领百蛮，怀柔殊俗？子之所长，愚无以喻。虽然，朋友以言赠行，敢不略意。方今汉德隆盛，远人宾服，傅、郑、甘、陈之功没齿不可复见，愿吾子因循旧贯，毋求奇功，终更亟还，亦足以复雁门之踦。万里之外以身为本。愿详思愚言。&rdquo;大意是，您再任都护是件美事，但凭您之材，可以在朝取卿相之位，不必去西域勒功。既然远任，还望不贪奇功，任满即还，不要像在雁门时再次摔跤。远在万里之遥以保重身体为要。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　段会宗到西域，各国都派子弟欢迎。乌孙小昆弥（小王）安日感念段会宗以往立他的恩德，打算远出迎谒，于是，他阻绝有些贵族的劝告，到了龟兹谒见段会宗。西域一些城邦小国都亲附于汉朝。康居太子保苏匿率领一万多人打算投降于汉朝，段会宗向朝廷报告这个情况，朝廷派遣卫司马迎之于道。段会宗调发戊己校尉的部队随从卫司马接受投降者。卫司马对投降者不放心，要求他们都要自己綑绑起来，保苏匿对此怨恨，率领其众逃去。段会宗任满还朝，因擅自调发戊己校尉的部队而耽误了军用物资的调拨，有诏以将功赎罪论。又任为金城太守，因病免职。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　建奇功于乌孙过了一年多，乌孙小昆弥安日被其国内贵族所杀，内部大乱。朝延征用段会宗为左曹中郎将、光禄大夫，前去安抚乌孙。段会宗立了安日的哥哥末振将为小昆弥，安定了乌孙的内乱而还朝。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　当时，乌孙的贵族们对勇健的大昆弥（大王）雌栗靡都很畏服，告诫牧民不要进入大昆弥的牧区放牧，免得扰乱，所以&ldquo;国中大安&rdquo;①。小昆弥末振将&ldquo;恐为所并&rdquo;，派人去刺杀了大昆弥雌栗靡。汉朝派遣中郎将段会宗前去与都护共同谋划，立了伊秩靡为大昆弥。不久，末振将死去，安日之子安犁靡代为小昆弥。元延（公元前12&mdash;前9年）初，汉朝又派遣段会宗调发戊已校尉各国部队，诛伐末振将的太子番丘。段会宗担心大兵进入乌孙，番丘会受惊逃亡而捉不住，就将调发的部队驻扎在垫娄，选择三个精干的壮士，每人持带强弩，直接到了昆弥的所在地，召见番丘，指责他说：&ldquo;末振将骨肉相杀，杀汉公主子孙，未伏诛而死，使者受诏诛番丘。&rdquo;随即亲自执剑刺杀了番丘，番丘的部下惊恐而逃。小昆弥安犁靡带领数千骑兵包围了段会宗，③此篇材料主要依据于《汉书&middot;段会宗传》，凡引此传文字不另加注。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　①《汉书&middot;西域传》。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　段会宗对他说明来意，并说：&ldquo;今围守杀我，如取汉牛一毛耳。宛王郅支头悬麜街，乌孙所知也。&rdquo;意思是，如今你们杀了我，实是自取灭顶之灾。乌孙昆弥以下的人都很惊服，承认汉朝诛末振将之子理所应当。段会宗还朝报告办事经过，公卿大臣说他&ldquo;权得便宜，以轻兵深入乌孙，即诛番丘，宣明国威，宜加重赏&rdquo;。汉成帝对他赐爵关内侯，黄金一百斤。这时是元延二年（公元前11年）。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　末振将的弟弟卑爰疐本来参与谋杀大昆弥雌栗靡，这时带着八万多人归附于康居，&ldquo;谋欲借兵兼并两昆弥&rdquo;①。两昆弥畏惧。汉朝又派段会宗前去安抚，与都护孙建共同研究对策，元延三年（公元前10年），段会宗病死于乌孙，终年七十五岁，西域一些小国都很怀念他，&ldquo;城郭诸国为发丧立祠焉&rdquo;。谷永劝告段会宗&ldquo;因循旧贯，毋求奇功&rdquo;，而段会宗偏要出奇，建功于乌孙；谷永嘱咐段会宗&ldquo;万里之外以身为本&rdquo;，而段会宗竟然死于乌孙。史称段会宗&ldquo;为人好大节，矜功名&rdquo;，是有根据的。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　①《汉书&middot;西域传》。 <!--/HTMLBUILERPART0--></td>
                    </tr>
                </tbody>
            </table>
            </div>
            </td>
        </tr>
    </tbody>
</table>
</p>
<p>
<table id="table1" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="740">
    <tbody>
        <tr>
            <td height="66" background="mb4a.jpg">
            <p align="center"><b><font color="#663300" size="4">第三节 傅介子</font></b></p>
            </td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td height="166" valign="top" background="mb4.jpg">
            <div align="center">
            <table id="table2" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="80%">
                <tbody>
                    <tr>
                        <td style="line-height: 150%"><!--HTMLBUILERPART0-->　　往使西域<br />
                        <br />
                        　　傅介子（？&mdash;前65），西汉北地（郡治今甘肃庆阳西北）人，因为从军才当上了官。先是西域龟兹、楼兰都曾杀汉朝派去的使者，到了元凤（公元前80&mdash;前75年）年间，他以骏马监的身份要求出使大宛，受诏谴责楼兰与龟兹。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　傅介子到了楼兰，指责楼兰王与匈奴勾结拦杀了汉朝使者，说：&ldquo;大兵方至，王苟不教匈奴，匈奴使过至诸国，何为不言？&rdquo;楼兰承认错误，说：&ldquo;匈奴使属过，当至乌孙，道过龟兹。&rdquo;傅介子到了龟兹，又指责龟兹王，龟兹也承认了过错。他去大宛，再到龟兹，龟兹报告：&ldquo;匈奴使从乌孙还，在此。&rdquo;傅介子就率领部下杀了匈奴使者。回到朝廷报告情况，任他为中郎，迁为平乐监。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　谋刺了楼兰王傅介子对大将军霍光说：&ldquo;楼兰、龟兹数反复而不诛，无所惩艾。介子过龟兹时，其王近就人，易得耳，愿往刺之，以威示诸国。&rdquo;霍光说，龟兹的道路遥远，可以在楼兰试一试。元凤四年（公元前77年），傅介子受命出发。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　傅介子与部下都带了金币，扬言是要赠送外国的礼物。到了楼兰，楼兰王并不亲近他，他就假装离去，到了楼兰西界，让译员传话：&ldquo;汉使者持黄金锦绣行赐诸国，王不来受，我去之西国矣。&rdquo;于是拿出金币给译员看。译员还报楼兰王，楼兰王贪图汉朝财物，就来会见使者。傅介子与他同坐饮酒，陈列财物让他看。酒喝醉了，傅介子对楼兰王说：&ldquo;天子使我私报王。&rdquo;就是说汉朝皇帝派我向大王秘密报告。楼兰王相信了，起身跟着傅介子进入帐中密谈，两个壮士从背后刺楼兰王，剑刃穿出胸前，立刻死去。他的侍从人员都吓得逃散。傅介子宣告：&ldquo;王负汉罪，天子遣我来诛王，当更立前太子质在汉者。汉兵方至，毋敢动，动，灭国矣！&rdquo;因此没有引起动乱。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　于是傅介子带了楼兰王安归的头回朝廷报告，文武大臣都称赞他的功绩。昭帝下诏说：楼兰王安归曾为匈奴间谍，拦杀了汉朝使者，发兵杀掠卫司马安乐、光禄大夫忠、期门郎遂成等三批人马，以及安息、大宛等派来的使者，抢去汉朝使者带去的节印和安息、大宛所献之物，违背天理。平乐监傅介子持节出使斩了楼兰王安归的头，已挂在北阙，给予适当的报复，而不烦兴师动众。现在封傅介子为义阳侯，食邑七百户，动手刺杀楼兰王的两个壮士都补为侍郎。汉朝立尉屠耆为王，&ldquo;更名其国为鄯善&rdquo;①。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　傅介子倚仗汉朝声威，又有冒险进取精神，所以远至西域建功，结果封了侯。西汉自张骞始，多有这样的人，如郑吉、段会宗等等。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　①此篇材料主要依据于《汉书&middot;傅介子传》，凡引此传文字不另加注。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　①《汉书&middot;西域传》。 <!--/HTMLBUILERPART0--></td>
                    </tr>
                </tbody>
            </table>
            </div>
            </td>
        </tr>
    </tbody>
</table>
</p>
<table id="table1" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="740">
    <tbody>
        <tr>
            <td height="66" background="mb4a.jpg">
            <p align="center"><b><font color="#663300" size="4"> 冯嫽</font></b></p>
            </td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td height="166" valign="top" background="mb4.jpg">
            <div align="center">
            <table id="table2" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="80%">
                <tbody>
                    <tr>
                        <td style="line-height: 150%"><!--HTMLBUILERPART0-->　　冯嫽，西汉人。能史书，有办事能力。为解忧公主侍者。随从公主在乌孙时，常持节充任公主的使者，通好西域诸国。西域诸国敬信她，号曰冯夫人。为乌孙右大将妻。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　当时乌孙内乱，肥王翁归靡胡妇子乌就屠杀了狂王，自立为昆弥。汉朝派遣破羌将军辛武贤带兵一万五千人至敦煌，穿井通渠，积居庐仓，准备去讨之。都护郑吉了解右大将与乌就屠相好，使冯嫽去对乌就屠说，汉兵方出，必见诛，不如降。乌就屠恐惧，说：&ldquo;愿得小号&rdquo;。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　冯嫽受到汉宣帝征召，报告了情况。宣帝派遣谒者竺次、期门甘延寿为副使，送冯嫽出使西域。冯嫽锦车持节，诏乌就屠来到赤谷城，立元贵靡（解忧公主长子）为大昆弥，乌就屠为小昆弥，皆赐印绶。破羌将军辛武贤因此不出塞而还师。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　甘露三年（公元前51年），乌孙公主年老返汉，冯嫽也可能随之归来。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　乌孙大昆弥元贵靡病死，其子星靡代为大昆弥，势弱。冯嫽上书：&ldquo;愿使乌孙，镇抚星靡。&rdquo;汉朝遣之，士卒百人送行。冯嫽出使乌孙，果然使得星靡局势稳定。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　冯嫽乌孙之行，使得乌孙内乱平息，得以安定；也成就汉朝遣使绥远，而不烦劳师动众。她是个具有外交才干的杰出的女性。<br />
                        <br />
                        　　①本节取材于《汉书&middot;西域传》下。 <!--/HTMLBUILERPART0--></td>
                    </tr>
                </tbody>
            </table>
            </div>
            </td>
        </tr>
    </tbody>
</table>]]>
</description>
<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9816368.html</guid>
<subject>历史</subject>
<author>wenyangang</author>
<category>历史</category>
<pubDate>Mon, 02 Jan 2012 20:05:30 CST </pubDate>
</item>

<item>
<title>Grumman TBF(http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_TBF)</title>
<link>http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9816312.html</link>
<description>
<![CDATA[<p>Die <b>Grumman TBF <i>Avenger</i></b> war der Standard-<a title="Torpedobomber" href="/wiki/Torpedobomber">Torpedobomber</a> der <a title="United States Navy" href="/wiki/United_States_Navy">amerikanischen Marinestreitkr&auml;fte</a> in den letzten Jahren des <a title="Zweiter Weltkrieg" href="/wiki/Zweiter_Weltkrieg">Zweiten Weltkrieges</a> und der darauf folgenden Zeit.</p>
<p>
<table id="toc" class="toc">
    <tbody>
        <tr>
            <td>
            <div id="toctitle">
            <h2>Inhaltsverzeichnis</h2>
            <span class="toctoggle">[<a id="togglelink" class="internal" href="#">Verbergen</a>] </span></div>
            <ul>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Geschichte"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Geschichte</span></a>
                <ul>
                    <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Entwicklung_und_Zweiter_Weltkrieg"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Entwicklung und Zweiter Weltkrieg</span></a></li>
                    <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Nach_dem_Krieg"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Nach dem Krieg</span></a></li>
                    <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Heute"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Heute</span></a></li>
                </ul>
                </li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Nutzer"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Nutzer</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Konstruktion"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Konstruktion</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Technische_Daten"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Technische Daten</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Siehe_auch"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Siehe auch</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Weblinks"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Weblinks</span></a></li>
                <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Einzelnachweise"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Einzelnachweise</span></a></li>
            </ul>
            </td>
        </tr>
    </tbody>
</table>
</p>
<h2><span id="Geschichte" class="mw-headline">Geschichte</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Geschichte" href="/w/index.php?title=Grumman_TBF&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<h3><span id="Entwicklung_und_Zweiter_Weltkrieg" class="mw-headline">Entwicklung und Zweiter Weltkrieg</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Entwicklung und Zweiter Weltkrieg" href="/w/index.php?title=Grumman_TBF&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h3>
<p>Die Avenger (dt. R&auml;cher) wurde 1939 aufgrund einer Ausschreibung der <a title="United States Navy" href="/wiki/United_States_Navy">US-Marine</a> f&uuml;r einen neuen Torpedobomber entwickelt, der die veraltete <a title="Douglas TBD" href="/wiki/Douglas_TBD">Douglas TBD Devastator</a> ersetzen sollte. Im August 1939 wurden daf&uuml;r 13 Designstudien von sechs Unternehmen eingereicht in dem einer von zwei Entw&uuml;rfen der Firma <a title="Grumman Aerospace Corporation" href="/wiki/Grumman_Aerospace_Corporation">Grumman</a>, die bis dahin Hauptlieferant f&uuml;r die Jagdflugzeuge der Marine war, am 8. April 1940 f&uuml;r die Serienfertigung ausgew&auml;hlt wurde. Der Erstflug des Prototypen XBTF-1 der unter dem Projektnamen G-40 entwickelten dreisitzigen TBF-1 erfolgte am 7. August 1941. Ein zweites Versuchsmuster startete am 15. Dezember 1941 und kurz darauf wurde die nach dem &Uuml;berfall auf Pearl Harbor in Avenger (R&auml;cher) umgetaufte Maschine von der Navy akzeptiert. Die Serienproduktion begann im Januar 1942 bei Grumman. Die erste Lieferung von 100 Flugzeugen erreichte Pearl Harbor kurz vor der <a title="Schlacht um Midway" href="/wiki/Schlacht_um_Midway">Schlacht um Midway</a> im Juni 1942, zu sp&auml;t, um die Torpedostaffeln der US-Flugzeugtr&auml;ger auf das neue Modell umzur&uuml;sten. So nahm nur eine Gruppe von Freiwilligen der Torpedostaffel VT-8 mit sechs TBF-1 von Midway aus an der Schlacht teil. Von den ohne Jagdschutz eingesetzten Avengers wurden alle bis auf eine schwer besch&auml;digte Maschine abgeschossen. Nach Midway wurden alle Torpedostaffeln der Navy von der Devastator auf die Avenger umger&uuml;stet. Das US Marine Corps r&uuml;stete ab September 1942 die erste von 23 Staffeln auf die Avenger um.<sup id="cite_ref-FR_2011_09_0-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FR_2011_09-0"><font size="2">[1]</font></a></sup></p>
<p>Da die Marinestreitkr&auml;fte der Vereinigten Staaten immer mehr Avenger ben&ouml;tigten und Grumman bereits mit der Produktion der <a title="Grumman F6F" href="/wiki/Grumman_F6F">F6F Hellcat</a> ausgelastet war, musste ab Ende 1942 die <a title="General Motors" href="/wiki/General_Motors">General Motors Company</a> einspringen, um die geforderte St&uuml;ckzahl zu produzieren (die von General Motors gebauten 7.546 Maschinen trugen die Bezeichnung <i>TBM</i>). Die St&uuml;ckzahl aller gebauten Avenger bel&auml;uft sich auf 9.836 Maschinen, wovon 921 Maschinen an die britische <a title="Royal Navy" href="/wiki/Royal_Navy">Royal Navy</a> und 63 Maschinen an die <a title="Royal New Zealand Air Force" href="/wiki/Royal_New_Zealand_Air_Force">Royal New Zealand Air Force</a> geliefert wurden. Diese Menge zeigt auch die Bedeutung dieses Flugzeugtyps f&uuml;r die Marine.</p>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px"><a class="image" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:TBM_CVL-26_June1944.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20110822162709"><img class="thumbimage" alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/TBM_CVL-26_June1944.jpg/220px-TBM_CVL-26_June1944.jpg" width="220" height="219" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a class="internal" title="vergr&ouml;&szlig;ern und Informationen zum Bild anzeigen" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:TBM_CVL-26_June1944.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20110822162709"><img alt="" src="//bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
TBF-1 der Staffel VT-28 starten 1944 von der <i><a title="USS Monterey (CVL-26)" href="/wiki/USS_Monterey_(CVL-26)">USS Monterey</a></i></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px"><a class="image" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:TBM_VT-90_CV-6_Jan1945.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20071026220346"><img class="thumbimage" alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/TBM_VT-90_CV-6_Jan1945.jpg/220px-TBM_VT-90_CV-6_Jan1945.jpg" width="220" height="215" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a class="internal" title="vergr&ouml;&szlig;ern und Informationen zum Bild anzeigen" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:TBM_VT-90_CV-6_Jan1945.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20071026220346"><img alt="" src="//bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
TBM-3D <i>Avenger</i> der <i><a title="USS Enterprise (CV-6)" href="/wiki/USS_Enterprise_(CV-6)">USS Enterprise</a></i> 1945</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>W&auml;hrend des Zweiten Weltkriegs wurde das Design nur leicht ver&auml;ndert. &Uuml;ber 1.000 TBF/TBMs (genannt <i>Tarpon MK I</i> und sp&auml;ter <i>Avenger MK I</i>) wurden auch von der <a title="Fleet Air Arm" href="/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm">Fleet Air Arm</a> der <a title="Royal Navy" href="/wiki/Royal_Navy">Royal Navy</a> in beiden Kriegsschaupl&auml;tzen im <a title="Atlantischer Ozean" href="/wiki/Atlantischer_Ozean">Atlantik</a> und <a title="Pazifischer Ozean" href="/wiki/Pazifischer_Ozean">Pazifik</a> eingesetzt. Die Avenger wurde auch von der Royal New Zealand Air Force genutzt.</p>
<p>Eine gro&szlig;e Zahl Avenger wurde ab Ende 1943 ab Werk oder durch Nachr&uuml;stung mit einem ASD-1 <a title="Radar" href="/wiki/Radar">Zentimeterwellenradar</a> (AN/APS-3) ausgestattet, das in einem Beh&auml;lter am rechten Vorderfl&uuml;gel montiert war und feindliche Flugzeuge, &Uuml;berwasserschiffe und U-Boote aufsp&uuml;ren konnte. Diese wurden als TBF-1C und 1D bezeichnet und erhielten auch eine ge&auml;nderte MG-Bewaffnung und konnten ungelenkte Raketen einsetzte. Die TBF-1E erhielt ein An/APS-4-Radar, die TBF-1L einen ausfahrbaren Suchscheinwerfer und die TBF-1P diente als Fotoaufkl&auml;rer. Ein einzelner Prototyp XTBF-2 diente der Erprobung eines neuen Motors. Die zweitwichtigste Variante der Avenger war die mit einem st&auml;rkeren Motor und einem besser f&uuml;r den Nachteinsatz geeigneten Cockpit ausgestattete TBM-3. Deren Prototyp XTBF-3 flog im Juni 1943 zum ersten mal. Ihre speziellen Tragfl&auml;chen erlaubten es, <a title="Rakete" href="/wiki/Rakete">Raketen</a> und Au&szlig;entanks zu tragen. Eine gro&szlig;e Anzahl dieser TBM-3 wurde ohne das Heckgesch&uuml;tz ausgeliefert.</p>
<p>Die Torpedokapazit&auml;t der Avenger hatte auch gro&szlig;e Wirkung auf die japanische Flotte w&auml;hrend des Zweiten Weltkrieges, und die robuste Bauweise machte sie weniger anf&auml;llig f&uuml;r die gegnerische Flugabwehr.</p>
<p>Der sp&auml;tere US-Pr&auml;sident <a title="George H. W. Bush" href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> flog als damals j&uuml;ngster Navy-Pilot die &bdquo;White 2&ldquo; <i>Avenger</i> bei der VT-51 (<i><a class="new" title="USS San Jacinto (CVL-30) (Seite nicht vorhanden)" href="/w/index.php?title=USS_San_Jacinto_(CVL-30)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1"><font color="#ba0000">USS <i>San Jacinto</i></font></a>).</i></p>
<h3><span id="Nach_dem_Krieg" class="mw-headline">Nach dem Krieg</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Nach dem Krieg" href="/w/index.php?title=Grumman_TBF&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h3>
<p>Nach dem Krieg wurde die Zahl der Flugzeuge stark verringert und in den n&auml;chsten drei Jahren alleine in 15 Staffeln ausgemustert. Die Avenger fand jedoch in verschiedene Nischen der Marinefliegerei ihren Platz. Die US-Marine nutzte sie als Such- und Rettungsflugzeug (<a title="Search and Rescue" href="/wiki/Search_and_Rescue">SAR</a>), Allwetter-Nachtbomber (TBM-3N), Tr&auml;ger f&uuml;r <a title="Elektronische Kampff&uuml;hrung" href="/wiki/Elektronische_Kampff%C3%BChrung">elektronische Gegenma&szlig;nahmen</a> (TBM-3Q), Photoaufkl&auml;rer (TBM-3P), Verbindungs- und Versorgungsflugzeug f&uuml;r <a title="Flugzeugtr&auml;ger" href="/wiki/Flugzeugtr%C3%A4ger">Flugzeugtr&auml;gern</a> (TBM-3R) und als Ziel-<a title="Schleppflugzeug" href="/wiki/Schleppflugzeug">Schleppflugzeug</a> bei Schie&szlig;&uuml;bungen (TBM-3U). So diente die TBM-3E, die ein AN/APS-4-Radar unter der rechten Tragfl&auml;che mitf&uuml;hren konnte, als Torpedobomber. Die TBM-3W und TBM-3W2 diente der Suche nach U-Booten und war dazu mit dem weiterreichenden AN/APS-20-Radar, die TBM-3H mit Suchradar und TBM-3L mit Suchscheinwerfern ausger&uuml;stet. Die Bek&auml;mpfung der U-Boote &uuml;bernahmen dann TBM-3S und TBM-3S2. Im Koreakrieg wurde sie zum Transport von Verwundeten und mit ausgebauter Bewaffnung und Panzerung zur Versorgung der Flugzeugtr&auml;ger eingesetzt.</p>
<p>1953 wurden Anti-<a title="U-Boot" href="/wiki/U-Boot">Unterseeboot</a>-Versionen der Avenger von der Royal Navy bestellt. Diese Versionen liefen unter dem Programm <i>Mutual Defense Assistance Program</i> (MDAP). Bis 1955 waren die Avenger AS Mk IV oder auch AS Mk V im Dienst und wurden dann durch die Einf&uuml;hrung der <a title="Fairey Gannet" href="/wiki/Fairey_Gannet">Fairey Gannet</a> au&szlig;er Dienst gestellt. Unter dem MDAP-Program wurden diese Flugzeuge auch nach <a title="Frankreich" href="/wiki/Frankreich">Frankreich</a>, <a title="Japan" href="/wiki/Japan">Japan</a>, <a title="Niederlande" href="/wiki/Niederlande">Holland</a> und <a title="Kanada" href="/wiki/Kanada">Kanada</a> exportiert.</p>
<p>In den USA wurden 1954 die letzten TBM-3S und 1956 die letzten TBM-3W2 au&szlig;er Dienst gestellt.</p>
<h3><span id="Heute" class="mw-headline">Heute</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Heute" href="/w/index.php?title=Grumman_TBF&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h3>
<p>Einige Avenger sind noch nach 60 Jahren im Dienst, so beispielsweise in Kanada als Beobachtungsmaschine bzw. Brandbek&auml;mpfungsflugzeug &uuml;ber den W&auml;ldern von Kanada. Viele Avenger haben auch ihren Weg in verschiedene <a title="Museum" href="/wiki/Museum">Flugzeugmuseen</a> und zu <a title="Sammeln" href="/wiki/Sammeln">Sammlern</a> gefunden.</p>
<h2><span id="Nutzer" class="mw-headline">Nutzer</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Nutzer" href="/w/index.php?title=Grumman_TBF&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px"><a class="image" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Avenger_AS3.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20071026224429"><img class="thumbimage" alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Avenger_AS3.jpg/220px-Avenger_AS3.jpg" width="220" height="157" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a class="internal" title="vergr&ouml;&szlig;ern und Informationen zum Bild anzeigen" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Avenger_AS3.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20071026224429"><img alt="" src="//bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
Kanadische <i>Avenger AS.3</i> der <i>HMCS Magnificent</i> um 1951</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
    <dt><span style="display: none">Brasilien</span><a class="image" title="Brasilien" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Flag_of_Brazil.svg&amp;filetimestamp=20110820142209"><img class="thumbborder" alt="Brasilien" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/18px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" width="18" height="13" /></a> <a title="Brasilien" href="/wiki/Brasilien">Brasilien</a></dt>
    <dt><span style="display: none">Kanada</span><a class="image" title="Kanada" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Flag_of_Canada.svg&amp;filetimestamp=20100218045341"><img class="thumbborder" alt="Kanada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg/18px-Flag_of_Canada.svg.png" width="18" height="9" /></a> <a title="Kanada" href="/wiki/Kanada">Kanada</a></dt>
    <dt><span style="display: none">Frankreich</span><a class="image" title="Frankreich" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Flag_of_France.svg&amp;filetimestamp=20091011202638"><img class="thumbborder" alt="Frankreich" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/18px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" width="18" height="12" /></a> <a title="Frankreich" href="/wiki/Frankreich">Frankreich</a></dt>
    <dt><span style="display: none">Japan</span><a class="image" title="Japan" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Flag_of_Japan.svg&amp;filetimestamp=20090916032838"><img class="thumbborder" alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/18px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" width="18" height="12" /></a> <a title="Japan" href="/wiki/Japan">Japan</a></dt>
    <dt><span style="display: none">Niederlande</span><a class="image" title="Niederlande" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg&amp;filetimestamp=20100406171959"><img class="thumbborder" alt="Niederlande" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/18px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" width="18" height="12" /></a> <a title="Niederlande" href="/wiki/Niederlande">Niederlande</a></dt>
    <dt><span style="display: none">Neuseeland</span><a class="image" title="Neuseeland" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg&amp;filetimestamp=20091103041024"><img class="thumbborder" alt="Neuseeland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/18px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png" width="18" height="9" /></a> <a title="Neuseeland" href="/wiki/Neuseeland">Neuseeland</a></dt>
    <dt><span style="display: none">Vereinigtes Konigreich</span><a class="image" title="Vereinigtes K&ouml;nigreich" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg&amp;filetimestamp=20080908144614"><img alt="Vereinigtes K&ouml;nigreich" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" width="20" height="10" /></a> <a title="Vereinigtes K&ouml;nigreich" href="/wiki/Vereinigtes_K%C3%B6nigreich">Vereinigtes K&ouml;nigreich</a></dt>
    <dt><span style="display: none">Vereinigte Staaten</span><a class="image" title="Vereinigte Staaten" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg&amp;filetimestamp=20100729060706"><img class="thumbborder" alt="Vereinigte Staaten" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/18px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" width="18" height="9" /></a> <a title="Vereinigte Staaten" href="/wiki/Vereinigte_Staaten">Vereinigte Staaten</a></dt>
</dl>
<ul>
    <li><a title="United States Navy" href="/wiki/United_States_Navy">United States Navy</a></li>
    <li><a title="United States Marine Corps" href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps">United States Marine Corps</a></li>
</ul>
<dl>
    <dt><span style="display: none">Uruguay</span><a class="image" title="Uruguay" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:Flag_of_Uruguay.svg&amp;filetimestamp=20110822004111"><img class="thumbborder" alt="Uruguay" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/18px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png" width="18" height="12" /></a> <a title="Uruguay" href="/wiki/Uruguay">Uruguay</a></dt>
</dl>
<h2><span id="Konstruktion" class="mw-headline">Konstruktion</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Konstruktion" href="/w/index.php?title=Grumman_TBF&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<p>Die Avenger war ein Ganzmetall-<a title="Mitteldecker" href="/wiki/Mitteldecker">Mitteldecker</a> mit f&uuml;r den Flugzeugtr&auml;gereinsatz faltbaren Tragfl&auml;chen. Als Antrieb diente ein 14-Zylinder-<a title="Sternmotor" href="/wiki/Sternmotor">Sternmotor</a> R-2600 Cyclone von Wright mit bis zu 1305 kW Leistung und einem Dreiblattpropeller. Der interne Treibstoffvorrat betrug 1268 Liter. Das Heckradfahrwerk war einziehbar, einfach bereift und robust gebaut, um auch Landungen mit bis zu 5 m/s Sinkgeschwindigkeit standzuhalten. Die Kabine f&uuml;r Pilot, Bombensch&uuml;tze und Funker konnte durch eine T&uuml;r in der rechten hinteren Rumpfseite betreten werden. Als Bewaffnung kamen je nach Version ein elektrisch betriebenes 12,7-mm-MG mit 400 Schuss Munition auf dem Rumpf hinter dem Cockpit, ein 7,62-mm-MG mit 300 Schuss Munition vor dem Cockpit sowie ein 7,62-mm-MG mit 500 Schuss Munition unter dem Hinterrumpf zum Einsatz. Weiterhin konnten im Bombenschacht 908 kg Bomben, ein 558-mm-Torpedo Mk.13 oder ein 1041-Liter-Zusatztank mitgef&uuml;hrt werden. Ab der TBF-1C wurden statt des 7,62-mm-Bug-MGs zwei 12,7-mm-MGs mit je 600 Schuss Munition in den Tragfl&auml;chenwurzeln eingebaut.<sup id="cite_ref-FR_2011_09_0-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FR_2011_09-0"><font size="2">[1]</font></a></sup></p>
<h2><span id="Technische_Daten" class="mw-headline">Technische Daten</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Technische Daten" href="/w/index.php?title=Grumman_TBF&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px"><a class="image" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:TBM-3S_BuAer_3_side_view.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20080125230740"><img class="thumbimage" alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/TBM-3S_BuAer_3_side_view.jpg/220px-TBM-3S_BuAer_3_side_view.jpg" width="220" height="354" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a class="internal" title="vergr&ouml;&szlig;ern und Informationen zum Bild anzeigen" href="/w/index.php?title=Datei:TBM-3S_BuAer_3_side_view.jpg&amp;filetimestamp=20080125230740"><img alt="" src="//bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
3-Seiten-Riss der Grumman TBM-3S <i>Avenger</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>
<table class="wikitable">
    <tbody>
        <tr>
            <th>Parameter</th>
            <th>Daten f&uuml;r TBF-1C</th>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Name:</td>
            <td>Grumman TBF Avenger / General Motors TBM Avenger</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Hersteller:</td>
            <td><a class="mw-redirect" title="Grumman" href="/wiki/Grumman">Grumman</a></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Typ:</td>
            <td><a title="Torpedobomber" href="/wiki/Torpedobomber">Torpedobomber</a></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Hauptversionen:</td>
            <td>TBF-1, TBM-1, TBM-3</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Besatzung:</td>
            <td>3 Mann</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Leergewicht:</td>
            <td>4.788 kg</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Startgewicht:</td>
            <td>7.876 kg</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>L&auml;nge:</td>
            <td>12,20 m</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>H&ouml;he:</td>
            <td>5,00 m</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Spannweite:</td>
            <td>16,51 m</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Fl&uuml;gelfl&auml;che:</td>
            <td>45,52 m&sup2;</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>max. Geschwindigkeit:</td>
            <td>436 km/h</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Marschgeschwindigkeit:</td>
            <td>233 km/h</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Steigrate:</td>
            <td>7,3 m/s</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Dienstgipfelh&ouml;he:</td>
            <td>6.830 m</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Reichweite:</td>
            <td>4.320 km</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Triebwerke:</td>
            <td>1 <a title="Wright R-2600" href="/wiki/Wright_R-2600">Wright R-2600-8 Cyclone</a>, 14 Zylinder, 1.700 PS (1.267 kW)</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Bewaffnung:</td>
            <td>ein <a title="Browning M1919" href="/wiki/Browning_M1919">7,62-mm-MG</a> in der Flugzeugnase (fr&uuml;he Modelle) oder zwei <a title="Browning M2" href="/wiki/Browning_M2">12,7-mm-MGs</a> in den Fl&uuml;gelwurzeln<br />
            ein 7,62-mm-MG im Rumpf schr&auml;g nach hinten feuernd<br />
            ein 12,7-mm-MG in der Heckkanzel<br />
            eine 2000-Pfund- oder vier 500-Pfund-Bomben oder ein 907-kg-Torpedo im Bombenschacht<br />
            Fl&uuml;gelstationen f&uuml;r acht 5-Zoll-Raketen und Zusatztanks (TBM-3)</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody>
</table>
</p>
<h2><span id="Siehe_auch" class="mw-headline">Siehe auch</span> <span class="editsection">[<a title="Abschnitt bearbeiten: Siehe auch" href="/w/index.php?title=Grumman_TBF&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">Bearbeiten</a>]</span></h2>
<ul>
    <li><a title="Flug 19" href="/wiki/Flug_19">Flug 19</a>, das spurlose Verschwinden von f&uuml;nf Flugzeugen dieses Typs im <a title="Bermudadreieck" href="/wiki/Bermudadreieck">Bermudadreieck</a> 1945.</li>
</ul>]]>
</description>
<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9816312.html</guid>
<subject>拆飞机</subject>
<author>wenyangang</author>
<category>拆飞机</category>
<pubDate>Mon, 02 Jan 2012 19:38:03 CST </pubDate>
</item>

<item>
<title> A HISTORY OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY(BERTRAND RUSSELL)-009</title>
<link>http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9816195.html</link>
<description>
<![CDATA[<p>CHAPTER IX The Atomists</p>
<p><br />
THE founders of atomism were two, Leucippus and Democritus. It is difficult to disentangle <br />
them, because they are generally mentioned together, and apparently some of the works of <br />
Leucippus were subsequently attributed to Democritus. Leucippus, who seems to have <br />
flourished about 440 B.C., * came from Miletus, and carried on the scientific rationalist <br />
philosophy associated with that city. He was much influenced by Parmenides and Zeno. So little <br />
is known of him that Epicurus (a later follower of Democritus) was thought to have denied his <br />
existence altogether, and some moderns have revived this theory. There are, however, a number <br />
of allusions to him in Aristotle, and it seems incredible that these (which include textual <br />
quotations) would have occurred if he had been merely a myth.</p>
<p>Democritus is a much more definite figure. He was a native of Abdera in Thrace; as for his <br />
date, he stated that he was young when Anaxagoras was old, say about 432 B.C., and he is taken <br />
to have flourished about 420 B.C. He travelled widely in southern and eastern lands in search of <br />
knowledge; he perhaps spent a considerable time in Egypt, and he certainly visited Persia. He <br />
then returned to Abdera, where he remained. Zeller calls him &quot;superior to all earlier and <br />
contemporary philosophers in wealth of knowledge, and to most in acuteness and logical <br />
correctness of thinking.&quot;</p>
<p>Democritus was a contemporary of Socrates and the Sophists, and should, on purely <br />
chronological grounds, be treated somewhat later in our history. The difficulty is that he is so <br />
hard to separate from Leucippus. On this ground, I am considering him before Socrates</p>
<p>* Cyril Bailey, The Greek Atomists and Epicurus, estimates that he flourished about 430 <br />
B.C. or a little earlier. <br />
-64-</p>
<p><br />
and the Sophists, although part of his philosophy was intended as an answer to Protagoras, his <br />
fellow-townsman and the most eminent of the Sophists. Protagoras, when he visited Athens, <br />
was received enthusiastically; Democritus, on the other hand, says: &quot;I went to Athens, and no <br />
one knew me.&quot; For a long time, his philosophy was ignored in Athens; &quot;It is not clear,&quot; says <br />
Burnet, &quot;that Plato knew anything about Democritus. . . . Aristotle, on the other hand, knows <br />
Democritus well; for he too was an Ionian from the North.&quot; * Plato never mentions him in the <br />
Dialogues, but is said by Diogenes Laertius to have disliked him so much that he wished all his</p>
<p>books burnt. Heath esteems him highly as a mathematician. a&euro;</p>
<p>The fundamental ideas of the common philosophy of Leucippus and Democritus were due to <br />
the former, but as regards the working out it is hardly possible to disentangle them, nor is it, for <br />
our purposes, important to make the attempt. Leucippus, if not Democritus, was led to atomism <br />
in the attempt to mediate between monism and pluralism, as represented by Parmenides and <br />
Empedocles respectively. Their point of view was remarkably like that of modern science, and <br />
avoided most of the faults to which Greek speculation was prone. They believed that everything <br />
is composed of atoms, which are physically, but not geometrically, indivisible; that between the <br />
atoms there is empty space; that atoms are indestructible; that they always have been, and <br />
always will be, in motion; that there are an infinite number of atoms, and even of kinds of <br />
atoms, the differences being as regards shape and size. Aristotle a&euro;. asserts that, according to <br />
the atomists, atoms also differ as regards heat, the spherical atoms, which compose fire, being <br />
the hottest; and as regards weight, he quotes Democritus as saying &quot;The more any indivisible <br />
exceeds, the heavier it is.&quot; But the question whether atoms are originally possessed of weight in <br />
the theories of the atomists is a controversial one.</p>
<p>The atoms were always in motion, but there is disagreement among commentators as to the <br />
character of the original motion. Some, especially Zeller, hold that the atoms were thought to be <br />
always falling, and that the heavier ones fell faster; they thus caught up the lighter. ones, there <br />
were impacts, and the atoms were deflected like billiard</p>
<p>* From Thales to Plato, p. 193. <br />
a</p>
<p>&euro; Greek Mathematics, Vol. I, p. 176.</p>
<p>a</p>
<p>&euro; On Generation and Corruption, 326 .</p>
<p>.</p>
<p>-65-</p>
<p><br />
balls. This was certainly the view of Epicurus, who in most respects based his theories on those <br />
of Democritus, while trying, rather unintelligently, to take account of Aristotle's criticisms. But <br />
there is considerable reason to think that weight was not an original property of the atoms of <br />
Leucippus and Democritus. It seems more probable that, on their view, atoms were originally <br />
moving at random, as in the modern kinetic theory of gases. Democritus said there was neither <br />
up nor down in the infinite void, and compared the movement of atoms in the soul to that of <br />
motes in a sunbeam when there is no wind. This is a much more intelligent view than that of <br />
Epicurus, and I think we may assume it to have been that of Leucippus and Democritus. *</p>
<p>As a result of collisions, collections of atoms came to form vortices. The rest proceeded much <br />
as in Anaxagoras, but it was an advance to explain the vortices mechanically rather than as due <br />
to the action of mind.</p>
<p>It was common in antiquity to reproach the atomists with attributing everything to chance. They</p>
<p>were, on the contrary, strict determinists, who believed that everything happens in accordance <br />
with natural laws. Democritus explicitly denied that anything can happen by chance. a&euro; <br />
Leucippus, though his existence is questioned, is known to have said one thing: &quot;Naught <br />
happens for nothing, but everything from a ground and of necessity.&quot; It is true that he gave no <br />
reason why the world should originally have been as it was; this, perhaps, might have been <br />
attributed to chance. But when once the world existed, its further development was unalterably <br />
fixed by mechanical principles. Aristotle and others reproached him and Democritus for not <br />
accounting for the original motion of the atoms, but in this the atomists were more scientific <br />
than their critics. Causation must start from something, and wherever it starts no cause can be <br />
assigned for the initial datum. The world may be attributed to a Creator, but even then the <br />
Creator Himself is unaccounted for. The theory of the atomists, in fact, was more nearly that of <br />
modern science than any other theory propounded in antiquity.</p>
<p>The atomists, unlike Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, sought to ex-</p>
<p>* <br />
This interpretation is adopted by Burnet, and also, at least as regards Leucippus, by Bailey <br />
(op. cit. p. 83). <br />
a</p>
<p>&euro; <br />
See Bailey, op. cit., p. 121, on the determinism of Democritus.</p>
<p>-66-</p>
<p><br />
plain the world without introducing the notion of purpose or final cause. The &quot;final cause&quot; of an <br />
occurrence is an event in the future for the sake of which the occurrence takes place. In human <br />
affairs, this conception is applicable. Why does the baker make bread? Because people will be <br />
hungry. Why are railways built? Because people will wish to travel. In such cases, things are <br />
explained by the purpose they serve. When we ask &quot;why?&quot; concerning an event, we may mean <br />
either of two things. We may mean: &quot;What purpose did this event serve?&quot; or we may mean: &quot;What <br />
earlier circumstances caused this event?&quot; The answer to the former question is a teleological <br />
explanation, or an explanation by final causes; the answer to the latter question is a mechanistic <br />
explanation. I do not see how it could have been known in advance which of these two questions <br />
science ought to ask, or whether it ought to ask both. But experience has shown that the <br />
mechanistic question leads to scientific knowledge, while the teleological question does not. The <br />
atomists asked the mechanistic question, and gave a mechanistic answer. Their successors, until <br />
the Renaissance, were more interested in the teleological question, and thus led science up a blind <br />
alley.</p>
<p>In regard to both questions alike, there is a limitation which is often ignored, both in popular <br />
thought and in philosophy. Neither question can be asked intelligibly about reality as a whole <br />
(including God), but only about parts of it. As regards the teleological explanation, it usually <br />
arrives, before long, at a Creator, or at least an Artificer, whose purposes are realized in the course <br />
of nature. But if a man is so obstinately teleological as to continue to ask what purpose is served <br />
by the Creator, it becomes obvious that his question is impious. It is, moreover, unmeaning, since, <br />
to make it significant, we should have to suppose the Creator created by some super-Creator <br />
whose purposes He served. The conception of purpose, therefore, is only applicable within reality, <br />
not to reality as a whole.</p>
<p>A not dissimilar argument applies to mechanistic explanations. One event is caused by another, <br />
the other by a third, and so on. But if we ask for a cause of the whole, we are driven again to the <br />
Creator, who must Himself be uncaused. All causal explanations, therefore, must have an arbitrary <br />
beginning. That is why it is no defect in the theory of the atomists to have left the original <br />
movements of the atoms unaccounted for.</p>
<p>-67-</p>
<p><br />
It must not be supposed that their reasons for their theories were wholly empirical. The atomic <br />
theory was revived in modern times to explain the facts of chemistry, but these facts were not <br />
known to the Greeks. There was no very sharp distinction, in ancient times, between empirical <br />
observation and logical argument. Parmenides, it is true, treated observed facts with contempt, <br />
but Empedocles and Anaxagoras would combine much of their metaphysics with observations <br />
on water-clocks and whirling buckets. Until the Sophists, no philosopher seems to have doubted <br />
that a complete metaphysic and cosmology could be established by a combination of much <br />
reasoning and some observation. By good luck, the atomists hit on a hypothesis for which, more <br />
than two thousand years later, some evidence was found, but their belief, in their day, was none <br />
the less destitute of any solid foundation. *</p>
<p>Like the other philosophers of his time, Leucippus was concerned to find a way of reconciling <br />
the arguments of Parmenides with the obvious fact of motion and change. As Aristotle says: a&euro;</p>
<p>Although these opinions [those of Parmenides] appear to follow logically in a dialectical <br />
discussion, yet to believe them seems next door to madness when one considers the facts. For <br />
indeed no lunatic seems to be so far out of his senses as to suppose that fire and ice are &quot;one&quot;: it <br />
is only between what is right and what seems right from habit that some people are mad enough <br />
to see no difference.</p>
<p>Leucippus, however, thought he had a theory which harmonized with sense-perception and <br />
would not abolish either coming-to-be and passing-away or motion and the multiplicity of <br />
things. He made these concessions to the facts of perception: on the other hand, he conceded to <br />
the Monists that there could be no motion without a void. The result is a theory which he states <br />
as follows: &quot;The void is a not-being, and no part of what is is a not-being; for what is in the <br />
strict sense of the term is an absolute plenum. This plenum, however, is not one; on the <br />
contrary, it is a many infinite in number and invisible owing to the minuteness of their bulk. <br />
The many move in the void (for there is a void): and by coming together they produce coming-<br />
to-be, while by separating they pro-</p>
<p>* <br />
On the logical and mathematical grounds for the theories of the atomists, see Gaston <br />
Milhaud, Les Philosophes G..om.&uml;tres de la Gr.&uml;ce, Ch. IV. <br />
a <br />
On Generation and Corruption, 325 a.</p>
<p><br />
&euro;</p>
<p>-68-</p>
<p><br />
duce passing-away. Moreover, they act and suffer action whenever they chance to be in contact <br />
(for there they are not one), and they generate by being put together and becoming intertwined. <br />
From the genuinely one, on the other hand, there could never have come to be a multiplicity, <br />
nor from the genuinely many a one: that is impossible.&quot;</p>
<p>It will be seen that there was one point on which everybody so far was agreed, namely that there <br />
could be no motion in a plenum. In this, all alike were mistaken. There can be cyclic motion in <br />
a plenum, provided it has always existed. The idea was that a thing could only move into an <br />
empty place, and that, in a plenum, there are no empty places. It might be contended, perhaps <br />
validly, that motion could never begin in a plenum, but it cannot be validly maintained that it <br />
could not occur at all. To the Greeks, however, it seemed that one must either acquiesce in the <br />
unchanging world of Parmenides, or admit the void.</p>
<p>Now the arguments of Parmenides against not-being seemed logically irrefutable against the <br />
void, and they were reinforced by the discovery that where there seems to be nothing there is <br />
air. (This is an example of the confused mixture of logic and observation that was common.) <br />
We may put the Parmenidean position in this way: &quot;You say there is the void; therefore the void <br />
is not nothing; therefore it is not the void.&quot; It cannot be said that the atomists answered this <br />
argument; they merely proclaimed that they proposed to ignore it, on the ground that motion is a <br />
fact of experience, and therefore there must be a void, however difficult it may be to conceive. *</p>
<p>Let us consider the subsequent history of this problem. The first and most obvious way of <br />
avoiding the logical difficulty is to distinguish between matter and space. According to this <br />
view, space is not nothing, but is of the nature of a receptacle, which may or may not have any <br />
given part filled with matter. Aristotle says ( Physics, 208 b): &quot;The theory that the void exists <br />
involves the existence of place: for</p>
<p>* <br />
Bailey (op. cit. p. 75) maintains, on the contrary, that Leucippus had an answer, which was <br />
&quot;extremely subtle.&quot; It consisted essentially in admitting the existence of something (the <br />
void) which was not corporeal. Similarly Burnet says: &quot;It is a curious fact that the <br />
Atomists, who are commonly regarded as the great materialists of antiquity, were actually <br />
the first to say distinctly that a thing might be real without being a body.&quot; <br />
-69-</p>
<p><br />
one would define void as place bereft of body.&quot; This view is set forth with the utmost explicitness <br />
by Newton, who asserts the existence of absolute space, and accordingly distinguishes absolute <br />
from relative motion. In the Copernican controversy, both sides (however little they may have <br />
realized it) were committed to this view, since they thought there was a difference between saying <br />
&quot;the heavens revolve from east to west&quot; and saying &quot;the earth rotates from west to east.&quot; If all <br />
motion is relative, these two statements are merely different ways of saying the same thing, like <br />
&quot;John is the father of James&quot; and &quot;James is the son of John.&quot; But if all motion is relative, and <br />
space is not substantial, we are left with the Parmenidean arguments against the void on our <br />
hands.</p>
<p>Descartes, whose arguments are of just the same sort as those of early Greek philosophers, said <br />
that extension is the essence of matter, and therefore there is matter everywhere. For him, <br />
extension is an adjective, not a substantive; its substantive is matter, and without its substantive it <br />
cannot exist. Empty space, to him, is as absurd as happiness without a sentient being who is <br />
happy. Leibniz, on somewhat different grounds, also believed in the plenum, but he maintained <br />
that space is merely a system of relations. On this subject there was a famous controversy between <br />
him and Newton, the latter represented by Clarke. The controversy remained undecided until the <br />
time of Einstein, whose theory conclusively gave the victory to Leibniz.</p>
<p>The modern physicist, while he still believes that matter is in some sense atomic, does not believe <br />
in empty space. Where there is not matter, there is still something, notably light-waves. Matter no <br />
longer has the lofty status that it acquired in philosophy through the arguments of Parmenides. It is <br />
not unchanging substance, but merely a way of grouping events. Some events belong to groups <br />
that can be regarded as material things; others, such as light-waves, do not. It is the events that are <br />
the stuff of the world, and each of them is of brief duration. In this respect, modern physics is on <br />
the side of Heraclitus as against Parmenides. But it was on the side of Parmenides until Einstein <br />
and quantum theory.</p>
<p>As regards space, the modern view is that it is neither a substance, as Newton maintained, and as <br />
Leucippus and Democritus ought to have said, nor an adjective of extended bodies, as Descartes <br />
thought,</p>
<p>-70-</p>
<p><br />
but a system of relations, as Leibniz held. It is not by any means clear whether this view is <br />
compatible with the existence of the void. Perhaps, as a matter of abstract logic, it can be <br />
reconciled with the void. We might say that, between any two things, there is a certain greater <br />
or smaller distance, and that distance does not imply the existence of intermediate things. Such <br />
a point of view, however, would be impossible to utilize in modern physics. Since Einstein, <br />
distance is between events, not between things, and involves time as well as space. It is <br />
essentially a causal conception, and in modern physics there is no action at a distance. All this, <br />
however, is based upon empirical rather than logical grounds. Moreover the modern view <br />
cannot be stated except in terms of differential equations, and would therefore be unintelligible <br />
to the philosophers of antiquity.</p>
<p>It would seem, accordingly, that the logical development of the views of the atomists is the <br />
Newtonian theory of absolute space, which meets the difficulty of attributing reality to not-<br />
being. To this theory there are no logical objections. The chief objection is that absolute space <br />
is absolutely unknowable, and cannot therefore be a necessary hypothesis in an empirical <br />
science. The more practical objection is that physics can get on without it. But the world of the <br />
atomists remains logically possible, and is more akin to the actual world than is the world of <br />
any other of the ancient philosophers.</p>
<p>Democritus worked out his theories in considerable detail, and some of the working out is <br />
interesting. Each atom, he said, was impenetrable and indivisible because it contained no void. <br />
When you use a knife to cut an apple, the knife has to find empty places where it can penetrate; <br />
if the apple contained no void, it would be infinitely hard and therefore physically indivisible. <br />
Each atom is internally unchanging, and in fact a Parmenidean One. The only things that atoms <br />
do are to move and hit each other, and sometimes to combine when they happen to have shapes <br />
that are capable of interlocking. They are of all sorts of shapes; fire is composed of small <br />
spherical atoms, and so is the soul. Atoms, by collision, produce vortices, which generate <br />
bodies and ultimately worlds. * There are many worlds, some growing, some decaying; some <br />
may have no sun or moon, some several. Every world has a beginning and an end. A world may <br />
be</p>
<p>* On the way in which this was supposed to happen, see Bailey, op. cit., p. 138 ff. <br />
-71-</p>
<p><br />
destroyed by collision with a larger world. This cosmology may be summarized in Shelley's <br />
words:</p>
<p>Worlds on worlds are rolling ever From creation to decay, Like the bubbles on a river <br />
Sparkling, bursting, borne away.</p>
<p><br />
Life developed out of the primeval slime. There is some fire everywhere in a living body, but <br />
most in the brain or in the breast. (On this, authorities differ.) Thought is a kind of motion, and <br />
is thus able to cause motion elsewhere. Perception and thought are physical processes. <br />
Perception is of two sorts, one of the senses, one of the understanding. Perceptions of the latter <br />
sort depend only on the things perceived, while those of the former sort depend also on our <br />
senses, and are therefore apt to be deceptive. Like Locke, Democritus held that such qualities as <br />
warmth, taste, and colour are not really in the object, but are due to our sense-organs, while <br />
such qualities as weight, density, and hardness are really in the object.</p>
<p>Democritus was a thorough-going materialist; for him, as we have seen, the soul was composed <br />
of atoms, and thought was a physical process. There was no purpose in the universe; there were <br />
only atoms governed by mechanical laws. He disbelieved in popular religion, and he argued <br />
against the nous of Anaxagoras. In ethics he considered cheerfulness the goal of life, and <br />
regarded moderation and culture as the best means to it. He disliked everything violent and <br />
passionate; he disapproved of sex, because, he said, it involved the overwhelming of <br />
consciousness by pleasure. He valued friendship, but thought ill of women, and did not desire <br />
children, because their education interferes with philosophy. In all this, he was very like Jeremy <br />
Bentham; he was equally so in his love of what the Greeks called democracy. *</p>
<p>Democritus--such, at least, is my opinion-is the last of the Greek philosophers to be free from a <br />
certain fault which vitiated all later ancient and medieval thought. All the philosophers we have <br />
been considering so far were engaged in a disinterested effort to understand the world. They <br />
thought it easier to understand than it is, but without this optimism they would not have had the <br />
courage to make a</p>
<p>* <br />
&quot;Poverty in a democracy is as much to be preferred to what is called prosperity under <br />
despots as freedom is to slavery,&quot; he says. <br />
-72-</p>
<p><br />
beginning. Their attitude, in the main, was genuinely scientific whenever it did not merely <br />
embody the prejudices of their age. But it was not only scientific; it was imaginative and vigorous <br />
and filled with the delight of adventure. They were interested in everything--meteors and eclipses, <br />
fishes and whirlwinds, religion and morality; with a penetrating intellect they combined the zest of <br />
children.</p>
<p>From this point onwards, there are first certain seeds of decay, in spite of previously unmatched <br />
achievement, and then a gradual decadence. What is amiss, even in the best philosophy after <br />
Democritus, is an undue emphasis on man as compared with the universe. First comes scepticism, <br />
with the Sophists, leading to a study of how we know rather than to the attempt to acquire fresh <br />
knowledge. Then comes, with Socrates, the emphasis on ethics; with Plato, the rejection of the <br />
world of sense in favour of the self-created world of pure thought; with Aristotle, the belief in <br />
purpose as the fundamental concept in science. In spite of the genius of Plato and Aristotle, their <br />
thought has vices which proved infinitely harmful. After their time, there was a decay of vigour, <br />
and a gradual recrudescence of popular superstition. A partially new outlook arose as a result of <br />
the victory of Catholic orthodoxy; but it was not until the Renaissance that philosophy regained <br />
the vigour and independence that characterize the predecessors of Socrates. <br />
&nbsp;</p>]]>
</description>
<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9816195.html</guid>
<subject>乱谈</subject>
<author>wenyangang</author>
<category>乱谈</category>
<pubDate>Mon, 02 Jan 2012 18:33:56 CST </pubDate>
</item>

<item>
<title>文心雕龙-37</title>
<link>http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9530511.html</link>
<description>
<![CDATA[<p><span style="font-size: 22pt"><strong><font color="#f08442">事类第三十八</font></strong></span></p>
<p>事类者，盖文章之外，据事以类义，援古以证今者也。昔文王繇《易》，剖判爻位。《既济》九三，远引高宗之伐，《明夷》六五，近书箕子之贞：斯略举人事，以征义者也。至若胤征羲和，陈《政典》之训；盘庚诰民，叙迟任之言：此全引成辞以明理者也。然则明理引乎成辞，征义举乎人事，乃圣贤之鸿谟，经籍之通矩也。《大畜》之象，&ldquo;君子以多识前言往行&rdquo;，亦有包于文矣。</p>
<p>观夫屈宋属篇，号依诗人，虽引古事，而莫取旧辞。唯贾谊《鵩赋》，始用鹖冠之说；相如《上林》，撮引李斯之书，此万分之一会也。及扬雄《百官箴》，颇酌于《诗》、《书》；刘歆《遂初赋》，历叙于纪传；渐渐综采矣。至于崔班张蔡，遂捃摭经史，华实布濩，因书立功，皆后人之范式也。</p>
<p>夫姜桂因地，辛在本性；文章由学，能在天资。才自内发，学以外成，有学饱而才馁，有才富而学贫。学贫者迍邅于事义，才馁者劬劳于辞情，此内外之殊分也。是以属意立文，心与笔谋，才为盟主，学为辅佐；主佐合德，文采必霸，才学褊狭，虽美少功。夫以子云之才，而自奏不学，及观书石室，乃成鸿采。表里相资，古今一也。故魏武称张子之文为拙，以学问肤浅，所见不博，专拾掇崔杜小文，所作不可悉难，难便不知所出。斯则寡闻之病也。</p>
<p>夫经典沉深，载籍浩瀚，实群言之奥区，而才思之神皋也。扬班以下，莫不取资，任力耕耨，纵意渔猎，操刀能割，必裂膏腴。是以将赡才力，务在博见，狐腋非一皮能温，鸡庶必数千而饱矣。是以综学在博，取事贵约，校练务精，捃理须核，众美辐辏，表里发挥。刘劭《赵都赋》云∶&ldquo;公子之客，叱劲楚令歃盟；管库隶臣，呵强秦使鼓缶。&rdquo;用事如斯，可称理得而义要矣。故事得其要，虽小成绩，譬寸辖制轮，尺枢运关也。或微言美事，置于闲散，是缀金翠于足胫，靓粉黛于胸臆也。</p>
<p>凡用旧合机，不啻自其口出，引事乖谬，虽千载而为瑕。陈思，群才之英也，《报孔璋书》云∶&ldquo;葛天氏之乐，千人唱，万人和，听者因以蔑《韶》、《夏》矣。&rdquo;此引事之实谬也。按葛天之歌，唱和三人而已。相如《上林》云∶&ldquo;奏陶唐之舞，听葛天之歌，千人唱，万人和。&rdquo;唱和千万人，乃相如推之。然而滥侈葛天，推三成万者，信赋妄书，致斯谬也。陆机《园葵》诗云∶&ldquo;庇足同一智，生理合异端。&rdquo;夫葵能卫足，事讥鲍庄；葛藟庇根，辞自乐豫。若譬葛为葵，则引事为谬；若谓庇胜卫，则改事失真：斯又不精之患。夫以子建明练，士衡沉密，而不免于谬。曹洪之谬高唐，又曷足以嘲哉！夫山木为良匠所度，经书为文士所择，木美而定于斧斤，事美而制于刀笔，研思之士，无惭匠石矣。</p>
<p>赞曰∶经籍深富，辞理遐亘。皓如江海，郁若昆邓。<br />
文梓共采，琼珠交赠。用人若己，古来无懵。</p>]]>
</description>
<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.bokee.net/blogmodule/weblogcomment_viewEntry/9530511.html</guid>
<subject>乱谈</subject>
<author>wenyangang</author>
<category>乱谈</category>
<pubDate>Sun, 11 Dec 2011 21:21:44 CST </pubDate>
</item>

</channel>
</rss>
