云中漫步---博客

SOA Governance

wwh1688 — Tue, 23 Oct 2007 16:33:42 CST

SOA Governance To optimize their SOA investment and accomplish SOA business goals such as increasing business agility, organizations are turning to SOA governance. An effective SOA governance strategy must not only ensure that the behavior of project development teams is in-line with corporate goals; it also must address security and compliance issues that arise from regulations and business demands such as Sarbanes-Oxley, MIFID, and Visa PCI, ensuring nothing falls through the cracks. And, finally, it must control rogue services. The Progress Actional product family complements governance tools such as registries and repositories and provides organizations with comprehensive runtime SOA governance capabilities from monitoring SOA operations, to improving business outcomes, to ensuring enforcement of security, compliance, and business policies and controlling rogue services. Fundamental SOA Governance: Ensuring Reliable SOA Operations As a governance foundation, organizations must be able to understand what services are operating in their SOA, how they are operating, and who is using them in order to ensure reliable operations. But how can you monitor for service performance and availability in the loosely coupled SOA environment, where services that can be reused and recombined execute across diverse computing resources Progress Actional SOA Operations provides IT organizations with the end-to-end SOA visibility needed to ensure SOA reliability while eliminating most of the coding and manual configuration required by other solutions to achieve this end. It automatically discovers and monitors services and triggers alerts on performance and availability issues. These alerts, in turn, generate flow maps of the individual "violating" SOA process. SOA administrators can drill down into an individual transaction—to perform root cause analysis, so they can act quickly to solve problems before they impact end users. Achieving Business Goals with SOA Governance Once the SOA is running successfully, governance must be established to control the quality of service the SOA delivers to customers, partners, and other consumers and to meet service-level agreements (SLAs). However, to achieve this level of governance requires business insight into SOA operations. This is the basis for aligning the SOA with business goals. Progress Actional Continuous Service Optimization uniquely provides a detailed business perspective for viewing how the SOA is serving customers. Actional captures metrics on service levels, processes, and key business indicators related to the underlying IT infrastructures in multiple dimensions, for example, for individual customers, customer groups, regions, and custom-defined segments. This information provides the basis for optimizing SOA behavior dynamically or manually, using Actional control mechanisms, in order to ensure quality of service for customers. Reducing Security and Compliance Risk with SOA Governance No areas of SOA governance are more vital than enforcing security and compliance. Breaches in these areas can lead to financial penalties, litigation, and other business losses. But SOA governance in these areas isn't easy. It requires strict monitoring of information contained within the context of messages flowing through the SOA and consistent enforcement across the many services that make up an SOA business process. When IT developers are responsible for policies related to the services they create, there is a risk of inconsistent policies and coverage gaps. Progress ?/span>Actional for Active Policy Enforcement provides centralized security and compliance policy management with distributed policy enforcement. This allows organizations to put policy into the hands of security and compliance experts and empowers them to author policies once and apply them consistently across the SOA—guaranteeing complete coverage to reduce risk and cost. Finding and Controlling the Rogue Services Undetected, rogue services can wreak havoc—exposing sensitive information to unauthorized users and eluding compliance audits. Even when rogue services aren't malicious, they can subvert system capacity planning. What is SOA governance if not control of what's occurring and who is using the SOA The Progress Actional Governance Integration Module integrates with third-party governance tools, such as Systinet, and provides detection, interruption, and reporting controls. It automatically finds all rogue services and stops them until they are reviewed and approved. Finally, it feeds back runtime metadata on actual services, their usage and dependencies, to add value to registry and repository metadata and help service developers minimize SOA disruption during service versioning and maintenance.

chemical cousins of DNA

wwh1688 — Mon, 22 Oct 2007 13:31:23 CST

Mitochondrial DNA contains 37 genes, all of which are essential for normal mitochondrial function. Thirteen of these genes provide instructions for making enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation. The remaining genes provide instructions for making molecules called transfer RNAs (tRNAs) and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), which are chemical cousins of DNA. These types of RNA help assemble protein building blocks (amino acids) into functioning proteins. Mitochondrial DNA contains 37 genes, all of which are essential for normal mitochondrial function. Thirteen of these genes provide instructions for making enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation. The remaining genes provide instructions for making molecules called transfer RNAs (tRNAs) and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), which are chemical cousins of DNA. These types of RNA help assemble protein building blocks (amino acids) into functioning proteins. Mitochondrial DNA contains 37 genes, all of which are essential for normal mitochondrial function. Thirteen of these genes provide instructions for making enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation. The remaining genes provide instructions for making molecules called transfer RNAs (tRNAs) and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), which are chemical cousins of DNA. These types of RNA help assemble protein building blocks (amino acids) into functioning proteins. Mitochondrial DNA contains 37 genes, all of which are essential for normal mitochondrial function. Thirteen of these genes provide instructions for making enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation. The remaining genes provide instructions for making molecules called transfer RNAs (tRNAs) and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), which are chemical cousins of DNA. These types of RNA help assemble protein building blocks (amino acids) into functioning proteins.

MBA programs

wwh1688 — Sat, 22 Sep 2007 20:04:51 CST

Through systematic world-standard MBA education, BiMBA aims to nurture a group of executives with a mastery of the theories and practices of international business and build a group of leaders with knowledge, vision and entrepreneurship.  The curriculum focuses on leadership and decision making skills, and application of advanced management theory in Chinese practices.  The regular MBA program lasts for 18 months, with 10 weeks and 4 courses every semester.  Internationally used MBA textbooks are employed and English is set as the teaching language, with the exception of the courses holding Chinese cases.  Students could select Finance Concentration and General Management Concentration.  Qualified students will be conferred the MBA degree of Fordham University, US. licensed by the Office of Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council of China.

Fundamental Courses

Business English
This course aims to improve the students' listening comprehension, speaking and writing skills in English used in the business context.  The course will be centered on the key areas of business, such as office management, personnel, marketing, production & operations, finance, corporate culture, intercultural awareness, business practices, sales presentations, etc.

Business Mathematics
This course introduces fundamental methods of mathematics applied in business statistics, operations management, and managerial economics.  The course focuses on linear algebra and differential and integral calculus.

Business Statistics
This course introduces the basic statistical concepts essential to economic and business research and decision making. These include business survey methods, descriptive statistics, probability distributions, parameter estimation, hypothesis tests, and fundamentals of regression analysis. Students will be able to analyze real world problems related to business management.
About half of the country's 2005 MBA graduates had received or accepted job offers by mid-March, according to Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC) data, but those still looking can take solace in knowing that the market for MBAs, while still slow, is picking up after a three-year slump.

In a survey of more than 5,800 MBA graduates from 129 business schools worldwide, GMAC, which sponsors the GMAT, found that 2005 graduates reported receiving more offers than those who graduated in 2002, 2003 or 2004.

At the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania, one of the country's top MBA programs, associate director of MBA career management Scott Stallings has seen a "relatively healthy demand for MBAs this year, on par or slightly better than last year."

However, national data from Michigan State University's Collegiate Employment Research Institute (CERI) suggests the US MBA market is tight, with modest growth of 7 percent expected. Graduates from top-tier MBA programs such as Wharton won't lack job offers, but according to CERI director Philip Gardner, the rest of this year's MBAs face two challenges.

"One, there's a huge supply of MBAs coming through the pipeline," he says. "Everyone diverted into MBA programs when the economy was bad, so there are more grads than positions. Second, we've seen labor substitution where BAs are replacing MBAs. The salary structures are being compressed."

A Look at MBA Salary Data

In CERI's survey of 582 employers of all sizes and from a range of industries, respondents say they plan to offer salaries ranging from:

&S226;$45,700 to $57,000 for MBAs who majored in business administration versus $52,500 to $65,300 last year.

&S226;$51,900 to $71,800 for MBAs who majored in finance versus $55,400 to $71,000 last year.

&S226;$39,500 to $48,700 for MBAs who majored in accounting versus $43,400 to $49,700 last year.

&S226;$46,500 to $58,800 for MBAs who majored in marketing versus $41,700 to $52,200 last year.

Those with master's degrees (as opposed to MBAs) in the same disciplines can expect the same salary ranges as their MBA counterparts, according to the CERI survey.

MBAs will likely experience an "erosion of their salary base," the CERI study predicts. "While the lower end of their salary range is holding, the top end is being pruned back by about 2 percent. MBA salaries will increase in manufacturing, but decrease in professional services."

GMAC's survey, however, found that new MBAs who have accepted a job expect average annual base salaries of nearly $90,700, the highest level since 2001. Overall, GMAC is estimating starting salaries for 2005 MBA graduates to be $78,040, up from $72,021 in 2001?002.

While the data on Wharton's class of 2005 is not yet complete, Stallings reports a 10 percent to 12 percent increase in investment-banking salaries over 2004 levels and a 40 percent to 50 percent rise in the size of sign-on bonuses. Salaries for Wharton MBA grads going into corporate management have risen 4 percent to 6 percent, while sign-on bonuses have risen 30 percent or more in size in that niche, he adds.

Consulting, finance/accounting and healthcare/pharmaceuticals are the hottest sectors for this year's crop of MBAs, according to GMAC.

The Fine Print

The differences between the GMAC and CERI data may occur because the GMAC data is self-reported and comes from a diverse group of global students, Gardner said. "Maybe everyone who answered is from Harvard, and no one from Frostburg State answered," he says. The GMAC survey included citizens from 110 countries, and 42 percent of respondents were non-US citizens.

The CERI data, meanwhile, includes employers that don't recruit on campuses and smaller companies that were more pessimistic about the labor market, which also influences the results.

Any is DNA

wwh1688 — Sat, 22 Sep 2007 20:03:03 CST

The DNA Chinese name is the deoxyribonucleic acid, also called the deacidizing ribonucleic acid (RNA), (DNA, for English Deoxyribonucleic acid abbreviation), is the chromosome main chemical composition, simultaneously also is composes the gene the material.Sometimes is called “the heredity particle”, because in the multiplicative process, the father generation transmits they DNA part of duplications in the filial generation, thus completes the character the dissemination.

Strict saying, DNA is grapevine such coils around mutually by two Shan Lianxiang the geminate helix, divides into A DNA, B DNA and Z DNA differently according to the screw, the double helix which the James · watson and Buddha bright west Si · Krick discovered, is called B water union DNA, is most common in the cell.

This kind of nucleic acid high polymer is a sequence which links by the nucleotide, each nucleotide all by member ribodesose, molecular phosphoric acid as well as a molecular basic group is composed.DNA has four kind of different nucleotide structures, they are the adenine (adenine, abbreviation are A), the thymine (thymine, abbreviation is T), the cytosine (cytosine, abbreviation is C) and the guanine (guanine, the abbreviation is G

DNA Fiction and Society; How it Affects Thought - Philosophy

wwh1688 — Sat, 22 Sep 2007 20:01:20 CST

A book called the Seven Daughters of Eve by Richard Sykes is worthy of a read and talks about what we have learned about the flow of human beings populations through DNA research. Thus it is safe to say that certain members of our species have developed differently and in different ways, meaning the brain also learns differently. As Scientists look at different human brains while doing various tasks and watch which areas light up with energy as it works through these different thoughts and tasks we are finding just how unique and different each mind really is.

Yet as we learn more about the brain we indeed add more questions to our studies. Why does man need to think. Why does mankind feel the need to share these thoughts and concepts in their writings? It appears that the flow of thought may be the single most important part of life. The process of thought is probably the single most important part of human life. "I think therefore, I am" Are you, is that it? So what is it with this large complex body? Is it to serve the brain? Or is the brain to serve the body? With these questions and the philosophers of prior periods and the writers and thinkers of today we can all agree that thought is one of the most important parts of self and of human life, if not the only true important part of life.

Then why do we allow thought to be controlled by religion, governments, other men? If we study the dialogues of Plato, Galelio, Copernicus, etc. we see that man has often muffled thought and that often fiction is the only way to allow for truth or thought. So we therefore live in a world with a history of imprisoning dissenting or disagreeing views. But for mankind to move forward we need to stop this and allow free thought. As we see modern day people of deep thought attempt to bring forth their discoveries and enlightenment, we see them doing so by way of fictional works. We see great thoughts in our movies, novels, stories; why should we have to hide truths in fairy tales. Why can't we know graduate to the next level without such forced barriers? Think about it?

"Lance Winslow" - If you have innovative thoughts and unique perspectives, come think with Lance; www.WorldThinkTank.net/wttbbs

US executive MBA program rankings

wwh1688 — Sat, 22 Sep 2007 19:21:44 CST

US executive MBA program rankings

US News are another provider of MBA rankings. Perhaps less well known than either the Business Week mba rankings or those of the FT, they nonetheless provide a useful addition to the mba program ranking debate. The rankings cover the top 53 schools in the US and all have individual rankings for their MBA programs. You can compare these results with the FT TOP INTERNATIONAL MBA SCHOOL RANKINGS.

Top US executive MBA program ranking
1    Northwestern University (Kellogg) (IL)
2    Duke University (Fuqua) (NC)
3    University of Pennsylvania (Wharton)
4    University of Chicago
5    Columbia University (NY)
6    New York University (Stern)
7    University of California, Los Angeles (Anderson)
8    University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
9    University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (Kenan-Flagler)
10    Emory University (Goizueta) (GA)

MBA英文文章三UK MBA school rank

wwh1688 — Sat, 22 Sep 2007 19:20:18 CST

MBA英文文章三UK MBA school rank

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In October - November 2000 we carried out some research into UK MBA schools. We wanted to know what were the relative reputations of MBA schools across the UK. This meant not just the top MBA programmes but also the good national MBA schools as well. We researched MBA recruiters (in house and agency) and MBA graduates and candidates. The ratings from this survey (and a comparison with the FT 2001 research) are repeated in this commentary and are also available UK MBA RANKINGS as a single table.

In this report, we've divided up the rankings into a number of divisions. The first is that of business schools which have a truly international reputation.

Tier 1: Schools with european or top national reputations

Below LBS in the UK tables are the schools with excellent national and wider European reputations but which are less well known outside Europe. The key schools in this second tier in the UK are Cranfield, Imperial, Warwick and Manchester. These schools often have especially good reputations for key areas, such as Cranfield (manufacturing and marketing) and Imperial (research). Based on anecdotal reports the marketing modules at Cranfield are at least equal to those at LBS.

The other schools in this tier are City, Oxford (Said), Cambridge (Judge), Ashridge, Henley, and Edinburgh University. Our research here shows differences from the FT research which places Oxford (Said) and Edinburgh (at 2nd and 6th respectively) within the key schools in this tier. For this reason we have combined these schools into this second tier. Both schools performed well in our research (7th and 11th respectively) and we've heard some very good comments on the Edinburgh MBA. But we're surprised that Oxford's Said school has been rated as the 2nd best in the UK. It's a good course, but has only recently started and it still seems to early to have earned this position.

The schools in the bottom half of this tier all offer very good quality education, but for those of you looking for "calling card" MBAs they won't offer the recognition (especially at the international level) of schools higher up the rankings.

Some of the schools in this list are also well known for particular areas. To take one example City University offers a range of MBAs (including specialist MBAs in subjects such as marketing) and has very strong links to financial institutions in the City of London.

As mentioned above, we believe it is possible that the rankings of some schools, such as Oxford and Cambridge and perhaps Bristol, may have been boosted by a number of factors. While doubtless offering excellent courses it is possible that the placings have been boosted by the recruiting policies of some major recruiters (such as McKinsey who have the Oxbridge business schools on their preferred list) and also by their deserved reputation in other areas. Overall we think it's still too early to properly evaluate the quality and true ranking of the MBAs from both Oxford and Cambridge. The Bristol MBA has been "transfered" to Edinburgh University Management School so while the Bristol MBA appears in our research Bristol appears to have no further plans to offer their own MBA.

Tier 2: Good National MBA Schools
Tier three schools are similar in both research studies. Our research indicates that Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol (see above), Lancaster, Bradford, Strathclyde, Kingston, Oxford Brookes, Bath, Newcastle, Durham, Exeter, Manchester Metro, Nottingham Trent, Southampton, and Sheffield Hallam all rank in this tier. The FT research shows a similar picture, as can be seen from the FT rankings alongside our own. The FT research also included Nottingham University, which we were surprised not to see in our own research.

While no new universities (former polytechnics) appeared in the FT research a number showed up in ours, the highest placed being Kingston (18th) and Oxford Brookes (19th).

MBA programs in Australia

wwh1688 — Sat, 22 Sep 2007 19:17:27 CST

MBA programs in Australia

The following is a listing of MBA programs in Australia, totalling 33 schools. Rankings for Australian MBA programs can also be found on our site RANKING OF AUSTRALIAN MBA PROGRAMS

Each entry gives the address, (local) telephone contact number, the city or cities in which the MBA program runs, the length of the MBA program with start dates, the country and the course format. The latter is shown by MBA FT for full time course, MBA PT for part time and MBA EX for executive courses. Where the business school offers only a specialised MBA, or offers specialised MBA programs in addition to general management, this is also shown.

Annabele, University of Adelaide
3rd Floor, 233 North Terrace, Adelaide SA 5000, Australia
Tel: 8 8303 5525 ?
In: Adelaide
Course length (months): 17
Start Dates: Feb, Sep
Country: Australia
MBA FT

Australian Graduate School of Management
University of New South Wales
Gate 11, Botany Street, Randwick, NSW2031, Australia
Tel: 2 9931 9412 ?
In: Sydney
Course length (months): 18+
Start Dates: Feb
Country: Australia
MBA FT

Brisbane Graduate School of Business
Queensland University of Technology
Gardens Point Campus, GPO Box 2434, 2 George St, Brisbane, Q 4001, Australia
Tel: 7 3864 1264 ?
In: Brisbane
Course length (months): 12
Start Dates: variable
Australia
MBA FT

Faculty of Business, Edith Cowan University
Pearson Street, Churchlands, Western Australia
Tel: 8 9273 8673 ?
In: Churchlands
Course length (months): 18
Start Dates: Feb, Jul
Australia
MBA FT

Faculty of Commerce, University of Western Sydney, Nepean
PO Box 10, Kingswood, NSW 2747, Australia
Tel: 9685 9328 ?
In: Sydney
Course length (months): 12-14
Start Dates: Jan, May, Aug
Australia
MBA FT

Faculty of Management, University of Canberra
ACT 2601, Canberra, Australia Tel: 6201 2703
In: Canberra
Course length (months): 24
Start Dates: Feb, Jul
Australia
MBA FT

Grad School for Business and Law, Deakin University
Pigdons Rd, Geelong, Victoria 3217, Australia
Tel: + 61 3 5227 2216 ?
In: Melbourne
Course length (months): 12
Start Dates: Mar, Jul
Australia
MBA FT

Graduate College of Management, Southern Cross University
Military Road, East Lismore, NSW, Australia 2480
Tel: 2 6620 3000 ?
In: Gold Coast
Course length (months): 12
Start Dates: Jan May Sept
Australia
MBA FT

Graduate School of Business, Curtin University of Technology
30th Floor,QV1 Building, 250 St George's Terrace, Perth 6000, Australia
Tel: +61 8 9266 3460 ?
In: Perth
Course length (months): 16
Start Dates: Jan Feb May July Sept
Australia
MBA FT

Graduate School of Business, Northern Territory University
Darwin, NT 0909, Australia
Tel: 8946 6447 ?
In: Darwin
Course length (months): 12
Start Dates: Feb Jul
Australia
MBA FT

Graduate School of Business, University of Sydney
Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
Tel: 2 9351 0000 ?
In: Sydney
Course length (months): 18-24
Start Dates: Feb Mar Jul
Australia
MBA FT

Graduate School of Business, University of Technology, Sydney
PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW, Australia2007
Tel: 2 9514 3660 ?
In: Sydney
Course length (months): 24
Start Dates: Mar Aug
Australia
MBA FT

Graduate School of Management, Griffith University
Kessels Rd, Brisbane, Queensland 4111, Australia
Tel: 7 3875 8230 ?
In: Brisbane Gold Coast
Course length (months): 12-18
Start Dates: Feb Jul
Australia
MBA FT

Graduate School of Management, La Trobe University
Plenty Rd, Bundoora, Australia 3083
Tel: 3 9458 2755 ?
In: Bundoora
Course length (months): 12 or 24
Start Dates: Jan
Australia
MBA FT

Graduate School of Management, Swinburne University of Technology
PO Box 218, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia
Tel: +61 3 9214 8400/8071 ?
In: Hawthorn (Melbourne)
Course length (months): 13-18
Start Dates: Feb June Oct
Australia
MBA FT

Graduate School of Management, The University of Western Australia
Kings Park, Perth, Western Australia
Tel: 8 9380 1815 ?
In: Perth
Course length (months): 16
Start Dates: Jan May Sept
Australia
MBA FT

Graduate School of Management, University Of Queensland
Brisbane QLD 4072
Tel: 7 3365 6475 ?
In: Brisbane
Course length (months): 12-16
Start Dates: Feb, July
Australia
MBA FT

International Division, Charles Sturt University
Locked Bag 669, Wagga Wagga NSW 2678, Australia
Tel: 6933 2660 ?
In: Wagga Wagga
Course length (months): 18
Start Dates: Feb Jul
Australia
MBA FT

International Graduate School of Management
University of South Australia
GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, South Australia
Tel: 8 8302 0032 ?
In: Adelaide
Course length (months): 15
Start Dates: Jan Jul
Australia
MBA FT

TOP

Introduction to DNA

wwh1688 — Sat, 22 Sep 2007 13:57:58 CST

Introduction to DNA

This web page is intended as a brief introduction to DNA for High School-level students. We will see what it is, how it works, and we will learn how DNA is studied. It is assumed that the student has taken some basic high-school level chemistry.

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Introduction
DNA is basically a long molecule that contains coded instructions for the cells. Everything the cells do is coded somehow in DNA - which cells should grow and when, which cells should die and when, which cells should make hair and what color it should be. Our DNA is inherited from our parents. We resemble our parents simply because our bodies were formed using DNA to guide the process - the DNA we inherited from them.
We may resemble our parents, but we are never exactly like them. This is because each child gets only some of the DNA each parent carries. About half our DNA comes from our mother, and half comes from our father. Which pieces we get is basically random, and each child gets a different subset of the parents' DNA. Thus, siblings may have the same parents, but they usually do not have exactly the same DNA (except for identical twins).

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What is DNA, and how does it determine our physical characteristics?

To answer this question, first we must learn how DNA is structured.
DNA is a long molecule, like a chain, where the links of the chain are pieces called nucleotides (sometimes also called 'bases'). There are four different types of nucleotides in DNA which we'll call 'A', 'G', 'C' and 'T'. These four are all that's necessary to write a code that describes our entire body plan. Sounds too simple? Keep in mind that Morse Code uses only four symbols (dot, dash, short spaces and long spaces), and you could spell out entire encyclopedias of knowlege with that simple code!

The four nucleotides look a little bit alike. They all have a ring of carbons called, in chemist's terminology, a 'sugar' (not the same as 'table sugar', however). Each nucleotide also has another type of ring structure, and this is where the four types of nucleotide are different. These rings are organic bases, much like the more familiar mineral acids and bases like NaOH or HCl, except these bases are composed of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen.

I'll try to use the term 'base' or 'basic group' to refer to just the nitrogen/carbon rings, and the term 'nucleotides' to refer to the entire structure.

Now ordinarily the atoms in a nucleotide form a three-dimensional structure. To help you visualize the structure, here's what a 'T' (T stands for Thymidine) would look like if flattened onto paper:

DNA chains are made by connecting those nucleotides together via chemical bonds. At right is a diagram showing four nucleotides connected to form an oligonucleotide, in this case an RNA oligo (note that it has '-OH' at the lower right corner of each nucleotide, as opposed to the '-H' in DNA). I've left off the bases, for simplicity's sake. You can see the sugar rings linked together with phosphate bridges. This is a "single-stranded" nucleic acid. Below is the double-stranded form:

Double-stranded DNA is simply two chains of single- stranded DNA, positioned so their "bases" can interact with each other. At left is a cartoon depiction of double-stranded DNA. The sugar-and-phosphate 'backbone' is depicted in red, and the bases are depicted in blue.
Importantly, the two strands travel in opposite directions; hence the structure is said to be "anti-parallel".

The bases in the middle "pair up" with bases on the opposite strand, so that a type 'A' nucleotide is always opposite a type 'T', and 'G' is opposite 'C'. The attraction between the paired nucleotides is fairly weak, but when there is a whole string of them, it adds up to enough strength to hold the strands together.

One more thing holds the strands together - an interaction called "base stacking". We don't need to consider it here.

This figure was created using 'RasMol V2.6' for the Macintosh (thanks to Roger Sayle,
BioMolecular Structures Group Glaxo Research & Development Greenford, Middlesex, UK.)
The file 3cro.pdb was modified to remove the protein components, then a series of rotating
views was screen-captured to construct this moving gif. At right is an animated drawing of a DNA molecule. There are two strands of DNA in this picture, wound around each other to form the famous "double helix".
Down each edge is the backbone, where the nucleotides are linked together to form the chain. In this drawing, you can spot the backbone most easily by looking for the red balls, the oxygen atoms. Also look for the phosphorus atoms in the backbone. These are colored yellow. Together the phosphorus and oxygen atoms form the phosphate groups that interlink the nucleotides, as described earlier. You may be able to see the sugar rings just inside the phosphate groups, visible as grey atoms - carbon. (Note that hydrogen atoms are purposely omitted from this drawing in order to simplify it).
Look for the rungs of the 'ladder'. These are the basic groups that point inward and hold the two chains in position against each other. They are most easily spotted by looking for the blue color of the nitrogen atoms, which are alternating with the carbon atoms of the base groups.

DNA The recent ability of scientists to determine the structure of human DNA has created an explosion of research involving genetics, disease, evolution, and the origins of human population groups. The study of human origins is facilitated by analysis of DNA that is spared the complexity of the recombination. While most genes can come from either parent, such that the DNA from the parents is recombined in the child, some parts of human DNA are free from recombination. The mitochondria, small energy-producing structures in our cells, contain special DNA that is inherited only from the mother, without recombination with the DNA of the father. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) shows DNA structures that have been passed along purely maternal lines, from mother to daughter over the generations. Such analysis has proven to be a useful tool for many purposes (Richards and Macaulay, 2001). Likewise, the Y chromosome in men is passed along paternal lines only. Analysis of Y chromosomes can be used to link modern humans to male ancestors. Both mtDNA and Y chromosomes are subject to mutations that occur rarely but with presumably constant rates (the rates depend on what portion of the DNA is being examined--some portions mutate frequently, others remain very steady over time). Groups that share many common mutations can be presumed to be closely related. Groups that have very few common mutations may be presumed to come from family lines that diverged long ago. The typical human mtDNA molecule is a circular molecule comprising 16569 nucleotides in a specific order. These nucleotides, adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine are labeled A, G, C, and T, respectively. An arbitrary position has been defined as nucleotide 1. A standard mtDNA sequence, known as the Cambridge Reference, was the first published human mtDNA sequence (S. Anderson et al., 1981). Mutations can result in a variety of changes, such as a substitution of one nucleotide for another, a deletion of a part of the sequence, or the addition of one or more nucleotides. Several tools are used in DNA studies. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) classified DNA by analysis of patterns in DNA that has been cleaved into chunks by enzymes (restriction endonuclease). If two organisms differ in the distance between sites of cleavage achieved with a particular enzyme, the length of the fragments produced by enzymatic attack will differ. The similarity of the patterns generated can be used to distinguish species. Recent studies employ up to 14 different enzymes that can provide high resolution of differences in portions of human DNA. RFLP is often applied to a highly variable portion of non-coding DNA in the mitochondria called either the control region (CR) or the D-loop. Direct sequencing of portions of human DNA yields series of nucleotides that allow direct comparison of various genes with those of different individuals. The extensive sequence information can be used to map groups of related individuals into clusters or clades. Genetic analysis can also be done looking at proteins in the blood, the presence of certain genetic diseases or other genetic traits, and so forth. Evidence for Asian Origins and Arguments against the Book of Mormon Studies in the 1980s based on analysis of linguistic, dental, and genetic evidence resulted in the hypothesis that there were three genetic groups in the Americas, the Amerinds, the Na-Denes, and the Aleut-Eskimos, apparently due to three separate migrations of ancestral Asian populations across the Bering Strait. Greenberg et al. (1986) suggested that the first migration (beginning 12,000 years ago) eventually resulted in the spread of Amerind-speakers throughout North, Central, and South America, followed by additional migrations that brought the ancestors of the NaDene-speakers and Aleut-Eskimo speakers into the northern part of the continent. Other early genetic studies supported the three-wave model, while mtDNA studies have pointed to as many as four major waves of migration. But in 1995, a commonly-cited study by Merriwether et al. (1995) argued for a single migration from Mongolia or northern China, based on their review of mtDNA evidence. (See also Kolman et al., 1996.)

Bucks match Heat offer sheet for Charlie Bell

wwh1688 — Fri, 21 Sep 2007 08:51:52 CST

By COLIN FLY, AP Sports Writer
September 20, 2007

MILWAUKEE (AP) -- When Bucks general manager Larry Harris told Mo Williams that the organization decided to keep Charlie Bell, Williams was downright giddy to see his backup again.

"He starts laughing," Harris said. "He goes, 'I can't wait to talk to Charlie and tell him to pack up all his summer stuff, you're going to Milwaukee."'

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Against Bell's wishes, the Bucks matched an offer sheet on Thursday worth $18.5 million over five years that the restricted free agent signed with the Miami Heat on Monday.

"The sun will shine here just as it does in Miami," Harris said.

Agent Mark Bartelstein said that Bell was absorbing what had happened and "getting his thoughts together."

"He's going to get himself prepared to have a great year with the Bucks and play his heart out, the only way he knows how to play," Bartelstein said.

The 6-foot-3 Bell had said he wasn't sure if he could patch his fractured relationship with Milwaukee and wanted to go to Miami, which failed earlier in the offseason to sign Williams away from the Bucks.

"Miami is pretty good, they like both of our guards," Harris said. "Fortunately for us, they're going to be in our uniform."

Bell averaged a career-high 13.5 points in a breakout season last year for the Bucks, making 64 starts for an injury-depleted team that finished third to last in the league at 28-54.

Bell did not return a message seeking comment. He told The Associated Press earlier this week that the Bucks didn't want to give him a long-term deal and didn't have the money available to re-sign him. Before the Heat moved in, Bell was mulling an offer to play in Greece.

"Restricted free agency is a very tough process," Bartelstein said. "As a player, you don't know where you're going to be, you have to go through getting an offer sheet. It's hard, very hard."

Harris, who said he hadn't spoken to Bell directly yet, didn't take Bell's comments personally.

"I don't begrudge a guy with his feelings," Harris said. "Your skin gets a little thicker year after year, but I think my job is to make this team better every year."

Harris said with Bell's contract, the Bucks are well over $60 million in payroll. They've spent more than $80 million this offseason on Williams and free agents Desmond Mason and Royal Ivey, who signed with the team on Tuesday.

Two seasons ago, Bell signed with Milwaukee after averaging a league-best 27 points for Breogan of the Spanish league.

He went undrafted after helping Michigan State win the 2000 national championship and played briefly with Phoenix and Dallas before spending three seasons in Italy.

Williams was Miami's top target at point guard this summer, but the Heat could only offer him a deal worth around $31 million. The Bucks re-signed Williams for six years and $51.5 million and now have a talented, young core signed.

"It's going to sound funny saying this, but some things that Mo Williams did with his contract, (he) made a great sacrifice for Charlie Bell. I think that says a lot without going into too much detail," Harris said. "I give Mo a lot of credit. He did some things to help us do what we needed to today."

With Bell returning to his bench role bolstered by Mason and Ivey, the Bucks rotation appears set with starters Williams, Michael Redd, Bobby Simmons, former No. 1 pick Andrew Bogut and either top draft pick Yi Jianlian or Charlie Villanueva.

"I think they spoke loudly today about how important Charlie is to their team," Bartelstein said. "They're in a position to be really good for a long time to come."

Notes

Harris said that Yi is expected to be at training camp on Oct. 3 and practice on Oct. 4, two days after camp opens. Yi may come earlier if Houston Rockets' star Yao Ming decides to skip workouts with Team China. It's the last chance the players have to practice together before formal preparations begin for the Olympics next summer in Beijing.

AP Sports Writer Tim Reynolds in Miami contributed to this report.

Updated on Thursday, Sep 20, 2007 6:21 pm, EDT

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